FRONTISPIECE. 


PLATE   L] 


ORIGINAL    AND    UNTOUCHED    PORTRAIT 

ILLUSTEATING     THE      PROCESS     OF 

PHOTOGRAPHY     OF     THE     LARYNX, 


(COPYUIGUI   ) 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH- 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS 
AND  SPEAKERS; 

FROM  THE  COMBINED  VIEW  OF 

VOCAL    SURGEON    AND    VOICE    TRAINER. 


BY 


LENNOX  BROWNE,  F.R.C.S.  Ea, 

SENIOR    SURGEON   TO   THE   CENTRAL   THROAT   AND    EAR    HOSPITAL, 

SURGEON   AND   AURAL   SURGEON   TO  THE   ROYAL   SOCIETY   OF   MUSICIANS 

AUTHOR   OF   'the  THROAT   AND   ITS   DISEASES,'   'MEDICAL   HINTS  ON   THE 

SINGING   VOICE,'  ETC. 

AND 


EMIL  BEHNKE, 


LECTURER   ON    VOCAL   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TEACHER   OF   VOICE    PRODUCTION  ; 
AUTHOR   OF    '  THE   MECHANISM   OF   THE    HUMAN   VOICE,'   ETC. 


WITH    NUMEROUS    ILLUSTRATIONS    BY  WOOD-ENGRAVING   AND    PHOTOGRAPHY 


'  FOVRfti  EDlflON.^ 


NEW    YORK 


^4knhS^ 


G.    P.    PUTNAM'S    SONS, 


27    AND    29,    WEST    TWENTY-THIRD    STREET. 
1886. 


:S7 


j^ijy^^.^ 


LONDON: 
PRINTED   BY  WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND    SONS,  Limited, 

STAMFORD   STREET   AND   CHARiNG   CROSS. 


7^/9 


1^ 


CONTENTS, 


PAG  15 

List  of  Illustrations        xi 

Preface *       ..         ..  xiii 

A  Plea  FOR  Vocal  Physiology 

The  Laws  of  Sound  bearing  upon  the  Voice  ..         ..        i8 — 34 

Definition  of  musical  sound — Vibrations  can  be  seen  and  felt 
— Require  a  medium  to  be  perceived  as  sound  by  the  ear — 
Reflection  of  sound — Echoes,  20 — Vibrations  may  be  either 
simple  or  compound,  21 — Simple  or  pendular  vibrations — 
Compound  vibrations — Simple  tones — Compound  tones- 
Force  or  loudness,  22 — Pitch,  23 — Partial  tones,  24 — Quality 
of  tone,  26— Stringed  instruments,  29 — Flute  or  flue-pipes — 
Reed  instruments — Stiff  reeds — Flexible  reeds,  30 — Clarionet, 
31  —  Hautboy  —  Bassoon  —  Horn  —  Trumpet  —  The  human 
voice  —  Resonance  —  Sympathetic  resonance,  32  —  Tuning- 
forks. 

Speaking  AND  Singing        35 — 37 

Distinguishing  points  between  the  speaking  and  the  singing 
voice. 

The  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Vocal  Organ  ..  38—8-3 
The  chest  or  thorax — The  ribs — The  midriff  or  diaphragm,  40 
— The  muscles  of  the  chest,  41 — The  lungs— The  pleurae,  43 
— The  windpipe  or  trachea,  44 — The  bronchial  passages  or 
bronchi — The  mucous  membrane,  45 — Respiration,  45 — 
Different  methods  of,  49— Its  great  importance  in  relation  to 
voice,  song,  and  speech,  50. 

The  voice-box  or  larynx^  51 — The  framework,  53 — The  ring 
cartilage— The  shield  cartilage — The  hd  cartilage,  55 — The 
pyramids,  57— The  vocal  ligaments,  58 — The  muscles  of  the 
larynx,  61 — The  glottis,  65 — The  vocal  chink — Tabulation  of 
muscles  governing  (i)  the  vocal  chink,  (2)  the  pitch  of  the 
voice,  68 — The  pocket  ligaments,  69 — The  pockets  of  the 
larynx,  71 — The  cartilages  of  Santorini,  72 — Folds  of  the 
larynx  —  The  vestibule  of  the  larynx,  73 — Closure  of  the 
larynx  and  closure  of  the  glottis  two  different  things,  75 — 
The  prop  cartihiges. 


t^l  1^ 


vi  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

The  resonator^  77 — The  pockets — ^The  upper  part  of  the  throat,        38—82 
or  pharynx,  78 — The  cavities  of  the  nose,  79 — The  mouth — 
The  hard  palate,  80— The  soft  palate— The  tonsils— The 
uvula,  81 — Importance  of  soft  palate  in  vocalisation,  82. 

Differences  of  the  Larynx  in  Children,  Women,  and  Men       83—86 

Growth  from  infancy  to  puberty — ^Varying  dimensions  in  the 
sexes — Female  larynx  not  simply  reproduction  of  male. 

Movements  of  the  Larynx  which  can  be  seen  or  felt— in 
/;^spiration,  -£":rpiration,  and  in  various  vowel  sounds.  ..  ..         86 — 87 

The  Human  Voice  AS  A  Musical  Instrument  ..        ..        88—94 

The  string  theory — The  flute-pipe  theory — The  reed  theory 
— Influence  of  windpipe  below,  and  of  resonating  portion 
above,  on  pitch  of  the  voice,  91. 

^i   Physical  Causes  OF  the  Division  of  Voices  ..         ..        .,        94—98 
Diflerences   between   soprano,  contralto,  tenor,    and    bass — 
Speculations  on  the  subject. 

The  Hygienic  Aspect  of  the  Vocal  Apparatus       ..         ..      99—135 
Importance  of  knowledge  of  general  laws  of  health  to   all 
voice-users — Division  of  subject. 

I.  Hygienic  aspect  of  management  of  the  motor  portion— Re- 
spiration^ 102 — Respiration  chemically  considered — Import- 
ance of  fresh  air  in  dwelhng-houses  and  in  buildings  in 
which  voice  is  publicly  used,  104 — Nose-breathing — Influence 
on  voice,  105 — Hygienic  aspect  of  respirators,  106 — Lungs 
must  be  filled  primarily  at  the  base,  107,  then  laterally — and 
never  in  health  by  upward  elevation  of  collar-bone — Detri- 
mental influence  on  chest  expansion  from  stays — Mr.  Bernard 
Roth  on  the  subject — Description  of  hygienic  stays,  115  — 
Influence  of  stays  on  obesity,  118 — Experiments  with  spiro- 
meter, 120 — Other  influences  of  costume,  122 — Constricting 
collars,  tight  belts,  and  heavy  clothing — Influence  of  posture, 
124 — Beneficial  effect  of  respiratory  exercises  on  general 
health  of  persons  with  weak  chests,  125 — Influence  of  diges- 
tion on  respiration — Table  of  vital  statistics  according  to  sex 
and  height,  123. 

II.  The  hygienic  aspect  of  the  vibrating  element — The  larynx 
and  the  vocal  ligaments,  126 — Most  troubles  in  larynx  may 
be  attributed  to  wrong  respiration — Vocal  ligaments  but 
rarely  affected  organically  except  under  specific  diseases  of 
general  health — Directions  for  avoiding  laryngeal  fatigue,  1 27. 


CONTENTS. 


III.  The  hygienic  aspect  of  management  of  the  resonating  99 — 135 
portion  of  the  voice,  1 29 — Troubles  in  this  region  principally 
affected  by  disorders  of  secretion  and  digestion,  but  mainly 
attributable  to  faulty  respiration — Importance  of  physio- 
logical knowledge  of  formation  of  letters  with  regard  to 
perfection  in  articulation,  129. 

Concluding  remarks,  130 — Fatigue  in  whatever  division  of 
vocal  apparatus  almost  always  to  be  attributed  to  defective 
breathing — Cases  illustrative  of  benefit  of  lung  gymnastics 
on  the  voice,  132. 

The  Relations  of  the  Throat  and  Ear  in  regard  to  Voice    135 — 139 

Physical  causes  from  local  disorder  of  direct  relation  between 
throat  and  ear  which  may  disturb  power  of  judging  one's 
own  voice — Indirect  relation  due  to  failure  of  control  over 
laryngeal  muscles  to  govern  pitch,  137 — Or  auditory  nerve 
is  at  -fault — Comparison  with  sight — Distinction  between  the 
musical  and  non-musical  ear — How  to  train  the  musical 
ear,  138. 


Experiments  before  the  Invention  of  the  Laryngoscope 

Ferrein  (1741))  Kempelen  (1791),  Dutrochet  (1806),  Liskovius 
(1814),  Savart  (1825),  Malgaigne  (1831),  Lehfeldt  (1835), 
Magendie  (1838),  Joh.  Mueller  (1839) — Experiments  on 
exsected  larynges  from  the  dead  subject,  144 — Are  of  value 
only  if  confirmed  by  investigation  on  the  living. 


140—145 


The  Invention  OF  THE  Laryngoscope   ..        ...     .. 

Bozzini  (1807),  Senn  (1827),  Babington  (1827),  Beaum^s 
(1838),  Liston  (1840),  Avery  (1840),  Warden  (1844),  Manuel 
Garcia  (1855),  Merkel  on  Garcia,  Czermak  and  Tiirck. 


145—149 


The  Laryngoscope  and  how  to  use  it 

Description  of  mirrors — Illumination,  149 — Directions,  151 — 
Objections  to  its  facihty  refuted,  152 — The  "  Lar\'ngo-phan- 
tom,"  154— Auto-laryngoscopy — The  process— A  lamp  for  the 
purpose. 

The  Teachings  of  the  Laryngoscope 

Description  of  various  portions  seen  in  the  mirror — The  way 
in  which  the  object  is  reversed,  158— not  laterally  but  from 
before  backwards — The  laryngeal  image  in  gentle  breathing, 
160 — in  deep  breathing,  160— and  in  tone  production — 
Consideration  of  the  movements  of  the  vocal  ligaments  in 
tone  production — The  registers — Definition  of  a  register,  163. 


149-155 


156—172 


CONTENTS. 


— Divisions  into  "lower  thick,"  163 — "upper  thick,"  164 
—"lower  thin,"  167— "upper  thin,"  168— "  small,"  leg- 
Explanation  of  the  causes  for  differences  in  laryngoscopic 
observations  in  the  various  registers,  170. 

Laryngeal  Photographs  AND  THEIR  Lessons  ..         ..     173  —  178 

Differences  between  them  and  the  customary  engraved  view 
— Causes  thereof — Refutation  of  many  objections  and  fallacies 
held  by  non-laryngoscopic  observers,  173 — Differences  in 
appearance  of  glottic  chink  in  "  thick "  register  and  "  fal- 
setto." 

On  Voice  Cultivation        179—242 

nJ  I.  Breathmg. — Reconsideration  of  the  best  methods  of  filling 
the  lungs,  and  the  evil  effects  of  wrong  methods — Explanation 
of  diagrams  illustrative  thereof,  183 — Artificial  hindrances  to 
breathing,  184 — Breathing  exercises,  i,  186— How  to  fill  the 
lungs  slowly,  2 — How  to  hold  the  breath  in  the  lungs,  3— 
How  to  empty  the  lungs  slowly,  4 — To  control  both  inspira- 
tion and  expiration — Caution  not  to  overfill  the  lungs  by  too 
deep  or  frequent  inbreathing,  192— Also  not  to  exhaust  them 
before  taking  fresh  breath,  193^ — Nostril-breathing  habitually 
enjoined,  193— Mouth-breathing  only  occasionally  necessary, 
194. 

2.  Attack,  195 — Definition — Exercises  for  firm  and  clear  attack 
of  tone,  196— Cautions  against  overcrowding  of  lungs,  197 — 
Refutation  of  false  theory  of  attack  by  "  Shock  of  Upper 
Glottis  " — Evidence  that  Dr.  Wyllie's  support  of  this  theory 
rests  on  garbled  quotations,  199. 

3.  Resonance,  201 — Examples  of  power  to  reinforce  feeble 
sounds  by  resonators. — Resonance  of  vocal  tone  modified 
in  five  different  directions  :  i.  by  the  pockets  in  the  larynx  ; 
2.  in  the  vestibule  of  the  larnyx ;  3.  the  upper  throat 
(pharynx)  ;  4.  the  mouth ;  and  5.  the  nose — Opinions  as  to 
fixed  or  moveable  position  of  the  larnyx,  203 — Consideration 
of  the  mouth  as  a  resonant  cavity,  204 — Defective  articulation 
the  common  fault  of  Enghsh  singers  and  speakers,  205 — 
Exercises  for  regulating  free  movements  of  its  muscles,  206 
— Control  of  the  tongue  207 — Objections  to  artificial  aids  to 
its  depression,  208 — Exercises  for  control  of  tongue,  209 — 
Throaty  tone— Device  for  cure  of,  210— Movements  of  soft 
palate,  211 — Nasal  quality,  212 — Exercises  for  control  of 
soft  palate  and  avoidance  of  nasal  tone,  214 — Vowel  sounds, 
218 — their  relative  pitch — Exercise  on  all  vowels,  not  on  one 
only,  220 — Causes  for  varied  "  reach  "  of  the  voice — Directions 
so  as  to  obtain  it — Hints  as  to  accurate  articulation.  222. 


CONTENTS.  IX 


Flexibility,   223 — Definition  and  explanation   of    the  term —     179 — 242 
Exercises  for  its  attainment. 

The  Registers,  225— Should  be  equalised,  not  differentiated — 
Illustration  of  the  registers  of  various  voices  by  comparison 
with  stringed  instruments — Differences  of  registers  considered 
in  detail — Importance  of  understanding  nature  and  causes  - 
of  physical  sensations  experienced  by  singers  in  use  of  the 
various  registers — Exercises  for  developing  and  strength- 
ening the  registers,  234 — Dangers  of  forcing  registers  up — 
The  mixed  voice,  definition  and  mode  of  production — Fal- 
setto, its  varieties — All  remarks  on  voice  cultivation  as  appli- 
cable to  speakers  as  to  singers,  239. 

Position,  240 — Examples  of  what  it  should  not  be,  and  what  it 
should  be. 

The  Daily  Life  OF  THE  Voice-User       243—267 

Controlled  by  i.  Residence — 2.  Ablutions,  244—  How  to  bathe — 
Turkish  baths — Washing  teeth — Cold  water  in  the  mouth 
versus  gargling — Warnings  against  excessive  use  of  face 
powders  and  cosmetics,  247 — 3.  Clothing,  248 — Necessity 
for  care  of,  to  all  professional  voice-users — Hints  as  to — 
Description  of  sensible  dress  for  ladies — 4.  Diet,  252 — Ex- 
planation of  various  kinds  of  food  and  of  its  relation  in 
quantity  and  quality  to  the  amouftt  of  physical  work  of  each 
individual — Time  for  meals  when  using  the  voice— Dietary 
aids  to  voice  exercise — Suppers,  255— General  dietary  direc- 
tions— The  question  of  drinking  Tea,  258 — reasons  of  its 
injurious  effects  on  some  voices — Coffee — Cocoa — Effervesc- 
ing drinks — Aerated  waters — Alcohol,  26a— not  to  be  taken 
before  or  during  work,  only  at  conclusion — Varieties  of  wine  to 
be  taken— Malt  liquors — Spirits — 5.  Exercise,  261 — Distaste 
of  singers  for — To  be  always  moderate— 6.  Amusements,  262 
— What  may  be  allowed,  and  which  avoided — Lastly: 
Habits,  263 — Smoking — Snuff-taking. 

The  Ailments  OF  THE  Voice-User         268-287 

Special  colour  given  by  vocation  to  all  general  disorders — Most 
ailments  functional  and  due  to  disturbance  of  general  health 
or  fault  of  professional  exercise — Catching  cold,  zyiSore 
throat  or  relaxed  throat,  272 — Pharyngitis,  or  inflamed 
throat,  273 — Clergy jnan''s  sore  throat,  274 — Useless  advice  of 
rest  without  treatment,  275 — Elongated  or  re  taxed  uvula, 
275— Symptoms  and  treatment — Refutation  of  objections  to 
snipping  inappropriate  cases — Enlargement  of  the  tonsils^  278 


CONTENTS, 


— Its  injurious  effects  on  the  voice,  articulation,  and  respira- 
tion, and  on  senses  of  hearing,  smell,  and  taste — Operation,  and 
testimony  in  support  of  its  advisability — Laryngeal  troubles, 
281 — Reasons  for  not  considering  them  at  length — Loss  of 
voice,  281 — Symptoms  and  treatment — Cautions  as  to  dan- 
gerous and  patent  remedies — Common  head  cold,  284 — 
Nervousness,  285 — Concluding  remarks,  286. 

On  Defects  of  Speech:  Stammering  and  Stuttering    . . 

Present  position  of  the  subject  in  public  estimation — Brief  con- 
sideration of  vowels  and  consonants — Oral  teaching  of  deaf 
mutes  result  of  more  perfect  knowledge  of  physiology  of 
speech — Distinctions  between  stammering  and  stuttering, 
293 — Fault  of  respiration  the  most  frequent  cause,  297 — De- 
fective state  of  health  of  stutterers  and  stammerers — Treat- 
ment— Mechanical — Surgical,  299,  and  educational,  301 — 
The  last  both  mental  and  physical. 


PAGH 

268—287 


288—303 


Appendix  I. — The  Process  of  Photography  of  the  Vocal 

Organs  in  the  act  of  Singing        ..         304 — 307 

Appendix   II.— Copy  of   Letter    from    Dr.   Wyllie   on 
Approximation  of  the  Pocket  Ligaments  in  Tone 

Production        307 — 308 


Index     .. 
Advertisements 


••    309—322 
(xvii — xxxviii) 


'd 


^  ^ 


:^= 


A^ 


XI 


LIST   OF   PLATES. 


"^  All  Illustrations  of  this  work  which  have  been  borrowed  or  adapted 
from  other  authorities  are  duly  acknowledged.  Those  not  so  named  are 
either  original,  or,  as  the  result  of  actual  dissection  and  experience,  have 
been  modified  to  such  an  extent  as  to  justify  claim  to  originality.  The 
laryngoscopic  drawings  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Lennox  Browne,  and  the 
other  figures  have  been  drawn  under  our  joint  direction  by  Mr.  Sherwin,  of 
4  Staple  Inn  Buildings,  whose  care  and  skill  we  are  happy  in  having  secured. 
We  also  gratefully  recognise  the  painstaking  intelligence  with  which  Mr. 
Royle,  of  2  Newman's  Row,  Lincoln's  Inn,  has  engraved  the  woodcuts. 

Acknowledgment  of  obligation  in  the  matter  of  the  photographs  is 
accorded  in  the  appendix  on  Photography  of  the  Larynx,  page  304. 


PLATE  PAGE 

I.  Original  and  untouched  Portrait  illustrating  the  process  of 

Photography  of  the  Larynx.     {Copyright)      ..  Frontispiece 

II.  A  Reed  (/r^;;/  Tyndall) .,         ..          ..          ..  ..          .,       30 

III.  Section  of  the  Human  Body      ..          ..          ,.  ..          ..       39 

{Adapted  from  Kiiss  and  Czermak.) 

IV.  Framework  of  the  Chest..  ..  ..  ..  .,  ..       40 

V.  Chest  and  Lungs  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..       42 

VI.  The  Lungs,  &c.  {adapted from  Niemeyer)       43 

VII.  Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  ..  ..  ..       52 

VIII.  Front  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larnyx  ..  ..  ..       54 

IX.  Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx,  showing  the  interior 

of  it,  the  right  plate  of  the  shield  having  been  removed      ..        57 
X.  Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx,  showing  the  interior 

of  the  left  hdf 60 

XL  Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx,  showing  the  external 

muscles      ,.         ..         ..         ..         ..  ..         ..         ..       62 

XII.  A.  Glottis  in  Repose       \ 

B.  Glottis  in  Deep  Breathing I     65 

C.  Glottis  in  the  Production  of  Tone  ..  ..  ..  ..I 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


XIII.  View  of  a  Section  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  from  above  ..  66 

XIV.  Side  View  of  the  Voice-box   or   Larynx,  showing  the  left 

Pocket  and  Mucous  Folds         ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  69 

XV.  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  cut  open  from  behind       ..  72 

XVI.  The  Voice-box  or  Larynx  seen  from  behind     ..          ..          ..  73 

XVII.  The  Soft  Palate 80 

XVIII.  '^2XViXdX^2\%t  {adapted from  Flower)             ..          ..          ..  no 

XIX.  T)tioxvcit.^V^2X'=X  {adapted from  Flower)          ..          ..          ..  m 

XX.  Natural  Position  of  Organs  in  Unconfined  Chest    {adapted 

fro7n  Roth)        ..          ,.          ..   '       ..          ..          ..          ..  112 

XXI.  Distorted  Position  of  Organs  in  Body  deformed  by  Stays 

{adapted from  Roth)    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..113 

XXII.  Dr  Tobold's  Laryngoscope         150 

XXIII.  Dr.  Foulis's  Auto-Laryngoscope            ..          ..          ..          ..  155 

XXIV.  Laryngeal  Image  showing  Reversion  of  the  Reflected  Image  158 
XXV.          „            „        in  Gentle  Breathing . .          ..          ..          ..  160 

XXVI.          „            „        „  Deep  Breathing    ..          ..          ..          ..  160 

XXVII.           „            „        „  Tone  Production 160 

XXVIII.          „            „        "Lower  Thick  "Register 163 

XXIX.          „            „        "Upper  Thick  "Register 164 

XXX.          „            „        "  Lower  Thin "  Register 167 

XXXI.          „            „        "  Upper  Thin "  Register  (Female  Larynx)  168 

XXXII.           „     ,       „         "  Small "  Register  (Female  Larynx)         ..  169 

XXXIII.  The  Registers. of  the  Human  Voice 171 

XXXIV.  Repetition  of  the  Laryngeal  Images  in  the  Various  Registers  178 
XXXV.  Photographs  of  the  Larynx  in  the  Production  of  Different 

Mechanisms  {Copyright)       ..          ..          ..     to  face  page  178 

Illustrating  the  varying  capacity  of  the  chest 
according  to  the  method  in  which  the  lungs  are 

inflated         ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  183 

XXXVIII.  Section  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  showing  the  shape  of 
the  Vocal  Ligaments  in  the  "  Thick "   Register  {from 

Merkel) ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ,.          ..          ..  200 

XXXIX.  Section  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  showing  the  shape  of  the 

Vocal  Ligaments  in  the  "Thin"  Register  {froiJi  Merkel)  200 
XL.  Photographs  of  the  Soft  Palate  in  the  production  of  Different 

Tones  {Copyright)        ,.         ...          ..         .,      to  face  page  215 


XXXVI.    A.  B.  C 
XXXVII.    A.  B.  C. 


PREFACE. 


Each  of  the  Authors  of  the  following  pages  has  already 
contributed  something  towards  the  store  of  literature  on 
the  Human  Voice.  These  contributions  have  had  a  large 
circulation  and  have  so  far  been  successful,  but  they  have 
been  necessarily  one-sided  and  therefore  incomplete ;  for 
while  the  surgeon  was  unable  to  touch  on  matters  musical, 
the  teacher  found  himself  in  a  similar  difficulty  on  many 
points  of  hygiene  and  health. 

The  one,  after  many  years  of  experience,  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  wrong  production  of  voice  or  abuse  of  its 
function  was  the  chief  cause  of  most  of  the  cases  of  vocal 
failure,  and  even  of  throat  disease,  occurring  to  professional 
voice-users,  which  came  under  his  notice. 

The  other  had  become  equally  convinced  that  the 
scarcity  of  fine  voices  in  singers  as  well  as  in  speakers, 
generally  acknowledged  to  exist,  was  due,  less  to  dearth  of 
material,  than  to  faults  in  its  cultivation  and  exercise. 

The  want  of  a  complete  work  from  both  these  points  of 
observation  had  been  repeatedly  urged  upon  us,  and  as  we 
had  for  some  years  been  in  the  habit  of  collaborating  in 
the  treatment  of  patients  and  pupils,  and  had  found  that 
our  experience  on  all  points  of  physiology  and  of  hygiene, 
of  precept  and  of  practice,  in  so  far  as  we  could  form  an 
opinion,  was  in  entire  concord,  we  agreed  to  write  con- 
jointly   something  which  should,   if  possible,   supply   the 


xiv  PREFACE, 

want  indicated,  and,  containing  the  combined  experience 
of  vocal  surgeon  and  of  voice  trainer,  become  a  complete 
manual  for  all  voice-users. 

Probably  it  will  not  be  difficult  for  readers  to  identify 
the  separate  authorship  of  certain  chapters  and  passages, 
but  the  work  is  offered  as  essentially  a  joint  one  ;  for  there 
is  not  a  chapter  or  illustration,  and  hardly  a  paragraph,  but 
has  been  the  subject  of  frequent  mutual  consideration  and 
discussion. 

We  trust  that,  as  a  result  of  this  intimate  collaboration, 
our  aim  has  been  attained ;  and  for  the  same  reason,  we 
desire  to  acknowledge  equal  responsibility  for  any  short- 
comings. 


36  Weymouth  Street, 
Portland  Place, 


12  Avojtmore  Road, 
-35  Talgarth  Ready 

West  Kensington,  W. 


November,  1883. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 


The  first  edition  having  been  exhausted  within  a  month 
of  publication,  and  the  second  with  almost  equal  rapidity, 
the  authors  desire  to  repeat  their  grateful  acknowledg- 
ment of  so  marked  an  appreciation  of  their  labours. 

April,  1884. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH   EDITION 


Since  the  last  edition  the  authors  have  endeavoured,  by- 
publication  of  a  separate  monograph  on  "The  Child's 
Voice,"  to  supply  a  want  frequently  expressed  by  the 
readers  of  this  volume.  One  of  them  has  also  treated 
with  more  detail  than  appeared  convenient  in  a  handbook 
the  question  of  the  value  of  Stimulants  in  relation  to 
Voice-use. 

These  little  appended  essays  render  it  unnecessary  to 
make  any  change  in  this  new  edition,  and  the  authors 
have  only  to  once  again  express  their  recognition  of  the 
continued  favour  with  which  their  work  is  received. 

December,  1885. 


OPINIONS   OF   THE    PRESS. 


"  The  extract  we  have  quoted  will  be  sufficient  to  show  that  this  is  a  book  to  be  studied,  not  to 
be  merely  read." — The  Titrtes,  Dec.  27,  1883. 

"Their  book  is  absolutely  epoch-making." — Cologne  Gazette,  Feb.  24, 1884. 

"  The  book  is  written  with  clearness,  simplicity  and  directness,  and,  though  scientific  in  method  and 

thorough  in  execution,  is  devoid  of  all  unnecessary  technicalities It  is  indeed  a  work  that  will  not 

fail  to  reward  its  reader  with  liberal  gifts  of  exceptionally  useful  information." — The  Daily  Telegraph, 
Dec.  29,  1883. 

"  Is  not  only  easily  understood,  but  is  interesting  reading." — The  Daily  News,  Dec.  20,  1883. 

"  In  providing  the  means  for  a  better  knowledge  of  vocal  physiology  the  writers  have  thrown  the 
onus  of  ignorance  in  this  matter  upon  the  shoulders  of  those  singers  and  speakers  who  neglect  this 
important  branch  of  their  education." — The  Morning  Post,  Dec.  25,  1883, 

"  A  work  of  high  practical  and  scientific  utility,  which  ought  to  be  invaluable  to  all  who  use  their 
voices  for  public  speaking  or  singing." — Pall  Mall  Gazette,  March  14,  1884. 

"  Every  singer,  actor,  and  ordinary  public  speaker,  should  possess  a  copy,  and  take  its  teachings 
well  to  heart." — Echo,  Jan.  22,  1884. 

"The  precepts  of  the  Voice-trainer  in  the  book  are  of  undoubted  value  to  the  teacher  of  singing  ; 
and  many  of  them,  especially  in  the  chapter  on  'Voice  Cultivation,'  are  of  wider  application  still." — 
The  Saturday  Review,  Jan.  12,  1884. 

*'  The  authors  have  produced  a  treatise  of  eminent  usefulness  to  clergymen,  and  to  all  who  are 
called  upon  to  use  their  voices  in  public  ;  and  a  copy  should  be  placed  in  the  library  of  every  Theo- 
logical College  in  the  kingdom." — The  Record,  Dec.  28,  1883. 

"The  book  is,  indeed,  a  fascinating  one,  and,  once  begun,  is  with  difficulty  relinquished." — The 
Observer,  Jan.  27,  1884. 

"Jn  fine,  Messrs.  Lennox  Browne  and  Behnke  have  given  to  the  world  a  book,  every  page  of  which 
is  worth  learning  by  heart,  and  in  which  there  is  not  a  single  superfluous  line." — Sunday  Times, 
Jan.  6,  1884. 

"  In  '  Voice,  Song  and  Speech,'  are  very  happily  combined  the  experience  of  a  successful  throat 
specialist,  who  has  the  reputation  of  being,  above  everything,  practical,  and  of  a  singing-master  who 
is  qualified  by  scientific  attainments  to  understand  what  he  teaches.  The  result  is  a  work  of  great 
interest  and  utility,  not  only  to  the  voice-user,  but  to  the  gene>-al  reader." — Truth,  Jan.  3,  1884. 

"  To  sum  up  in  a  few  words  the  leading  characteristics  of  *  Voice,  Song,  and  Speech,'  it  is  full  of 
valuable  information,  intelligibly  imparted,  never  tiresome,  and  frequently  very  amusing ;  a  mine  of 
learning,  the  measures  of  which  are  not  offered  to  the  public  in  rough-hewn  blocks,  but  daintily 
polished  and  fashioned  into  attractive  shapes  by  skilled  and  artistic  hands." — The  Theatre,  Dec- 1883. 

"A  treatise  of  a  composite  nature,  of  great  value  as  a  guide  for  singers  and  speakers.  All  who 
study  it  and  follow  its  teachings,  may  benefit  both  physiologically  and  artistically." — Illustrated 
London  News,  Jan.  26,  1884. 

"Mr.  Lennox  Browne  speaks  with  authority  on  the  medical  side  of  the  question,  while  his 
collaborateur  combines  laryngeal  science  with  a  knowledge  of  music." — The  Graphic,  Dec.  29,  1883. 

"  The  results  of  two  such  earnest  investigators  of  the  subject  here  presented  to  the  public  cannot 
fail  to  produce  a  most  salutary  effect  upon  the  art  of  voice-training,  and  we  sincerely  hope  the  book 
will  be  extensively  read.  .  .  .  The  volume  will  assuredly  remain  as  the  most  perfect  manual  for 
singers  and  speakers  ever  published." — The  Musical  Times,  Feb.,  1884. 

"  The  whole  book,  in  point  of  fact,  is  full  of  that  which  the  student  ought  to  learn  for  his  own  self- 
guidance.  We  commend  it  heartily  to  all  vocalists,  amateur  or  professional.  A  careful  reading  will 
open  their  ej^es  to  many  things  now,  perhaps,  unsuspected." — 'I he  Lute,  Jan.  15,  1884. 

"  This  volume  is  the  most  complete  work  on  the  voice  for  the  use  of  the  musician,  the  singer,  and 
the  general  reader,  valuable  for  its  clearness  of  treatment  and  for  the  trustworthiness  of  its  informa- 
tion."—"Many  excellent  books  there  have  been  before  this  on  the  subject,  but  this  belongs  to  our 
day,  and  advances  the  reader  to  the  level  of  present  knowledge." — Musical  Opiniott,  Dec.  and 
Jan.,  1884. 

"Their  book  is  interesting  from  cover  to  cover,  and  cannot  fail  to  be  the  standard  work  on  the 
subject  of  which  it  treats."— 7 /i^  Tonic  Sol-fa  Reporter,  January,  1883. 

"  The  book  is  written  so  that  he  who  runs  may  read.  .  .  .  The  two  sections,  on  the  daily  life  and 
the  ailments  of  the  voice-user,  contain  much  good  advice  without  giving  that  little  knowledge  (more 

Sarticularly  of  medicines  and  prescriptions)  which  is  dangerous." — Edinburgh  Medical  Journal, 
larch,  1884. 

"The  photographs,  of  which  there  are  many,  both  of  the  larynx  and  soft  palate,  in  theact  of  singing, 
may  be  accepted,  quite  irrespective  of  their  value  to  the  singer,  as  triumphs  of  photographic  art,  and 
are  of  very  great  interest  from  many  varied  points  of  view." — Medical  Press  and  Circular, 
Dec.  5,  1883. 

"  The  warmest  encomium  we  can  offer  to  the  two  well-informed  and  experienced  authors  of  this 
excellent  work  is  simply  to  invite  the  public  to  read  the  production  of  their  joint  labours.  Its  merits 
will  prove  so  self-evident  to  all  as  to  render  any  panegyric  on  our  part  superfluous." — Student's 
Journal  and  Hospital  Gazette,  Dec.  22,  1883. 

"  This  work  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  and  we  wish  the  authors  every  success." — Public  Opinion, 
Dec.  29,  1883. 

"We  can  most  highly  recommend  it  to  all  who  are  interested  in  the  training  of  the  'Voice.'" — 
Journal  0/ Education,  Feb.,  1883. 

"A  very  imperfect  idea  has  after  all  been  given  of  the  varied  information  stored  within  its  pages. 
There  seems  to  be  nothing  omitted,  as  there  might  seem  to  be  nothing  to  criticise.  .  .  .  The  reader 
will  close  the  book  with  the  feeling  that  he  has  been  reading  the  opinions  of  authors  who  are  possessed 
in  a  singular  degree  of  the  merit  of  thinking  and  writing  In  a  clear,  common-sense  manner." — St.  Cecilia 
Magazine,  Edinburgh,  Jan.,  1884. 

"The  most  comprehensive  treatise  that  has  appeared." — Edinburgh  Musical  Star,  Feb,,  1884. 

"We  can  cordially  recommend  this  work  as  the  most  thoughtful  and  suggestive  treatise  on  the 
Voice  known  to  us." — Knozvledge,  Feb.  8,  1884. 

"  Now  that  the  work  has  appeared,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  declaring  it  superior  to  any  of  its 
predecessors." — Health,  Feb.  29,  and  March  7,  1884. 

"  The  book  is  copiously  illustrated,  and  it  forms  a  very  complete  work  of  reference  and  study. 
The  subject  is  threshed  out  thoroughly,  every  detail  is  alluded  to  with  copious  references  to 
authorities,  and  the  value  of  the  book  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  clear  and  comprehensible  style 
adopted  by  the  two  joint  authors." — LondonFigaro,  Dec  15,  1883. 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH 


A  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 

"If  any  one  doubts  the  importance  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  principles 
of  physiology  as  a  means  to  complete  living  let  him  look  around  and  see 
how  many  men  and  women  he  can  find  in  middle  or  later  life  who  are 
thoroughly  well." — Herbert  Spe7tcer. 

We  have  only  to  demand  application  of  the  above 
pertinent  question  of  our  great  modern  philosopher  on  the 
subject  of  general  physiology  to  the  more  special  one,  the 
title  of  which  heads  this  chapter,  to  explain  why  it  seems 
strange  to  us  that  there  is  any  necessity  to  plead  for  a 
knowledge  of  vocal  physiology  amongst  singers  and 
speakers.  Such  knowledge  should  be  universally  admitted 
as  an  indispensable  branch  of  vocal  culture.  The  result 
would  be  twofold:  first,  the  full  beauties  of  the  vocal 
organ  would  be  developed  with  intelligence  and  ease ;  and 
secondly,  fewer  voices  would  be  ruined  in  the  training,  or 
be  prematurely  worn  out,  since  both  teachers  and  pupils 
of  singing  and  of  elocution  would  know  better  the  con- 
struction, capabilities,  and  delicacy  of  the  instrument  on 
which  they  wish  to  play. 

Some  have  ridiculed  the  idea  that  an  acquaintance  with 
this  subject  is  of  any  more  use  to  the  vocalist  than  is  the 
anatomy  of  the  hand  to  the  pianist.     But  the  examples 

B 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


are  not  analogous,  inasmuch  as  the  pianist  obtains  his 
instrument  ready  made  for  him,  and  if  he  wear  it  out  or 
injure  it  he  can  purchase  another,  while  the  vocaUst  has 
to  form  his  voice,  and  if  he  wrongly  use  it,  it  may  be 
gone  for  ever. 

A  pupil  on  going  over  an  exercise  or  piece  is  told  by 
the  master,  '•'  You  are  singing  with  nasal,  or  throaty,  or 
muffled  quaUty,"  as  the  case  may  be  ;  "  let  the  tone  be  a  pure 
vocal  one."  The  master  imitates  the  fault  with  exagger- 
ation, then  (presumably)  patterns  correctly ;  but  although 
the  pupil  recognises  the  defect  he  is  unable  to  remedy  it, 
because  singing  cannot  be  learned  exclusively  by  imitation, 
any  more  than  painting  by  copying  the  works  of  masters, 
however  great.  The  teacher's  injunctions  serve  but  to  be- 
wilder the  anxious  student,  who  would  be  only  too  thank- 
ful to  produce  pure  and  beautiful  tone  did  he  understand 
the  process,  and  were  the  master  possessed  of  sufficient 
practical  knowledge  of  vocal  physiology  to  rightly  instruct 
him  in  control  of  the  individual  or  various  muscles  whose 
imperfect  action  causes  the  defects  in  question.  Analogies 
must  not,  then,  be  sought  for  between  the  practice  of  a 
living  and  of  a  mechanical  art,  which  latter  might  be  applic- 
able to  certain  rules  for  the  education  of  a  pianist  and  a 
violinist.  The  true  analogy  is  to  be  found  in  the  two  arts 
of  singing  and  painting,  whereas  the  likenesses  and  differ- 
ences of  practice  with  two  instruments  might  be  illustrated 
by  the  kindred  mechanical  graphic  arts  of  engraving  and 
lithography.  We  wish  to  urge  that  the  singing  pupil 
should  not  be  asked  to  make  a  copy  of  any  master,  but  to 
produce  an  original  with  all  the  differences  and  individuali- 
ties thereof.  But  what  would  be  said  of  an  art  student 
who  attempted  a  figure  subject  without  knowledge  of 
anatomy  so    as  to  understand  the  action   of  the  various 


A  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


muscles  ?  Who  dreams  of  painting  costumed  figures  until 
he  has  mastered  the  mysteries  of  form  in  the  nude  and  the 
consequent  meaning  of  every  fold  of  drapery?  Who, 
again,  would  sanction  the  painting  of  a  landscape  without 
previous  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  light  and  shade,  of 
composition  and,  above  all,  of  perspective  ?  And  suppos- 
ing such  were  attempted,  who  would  look  at  the  resulting 
works  or  give  them  a  place  on  wall  or  in  portfolio  ?  All 
teaching  of  laws  of  Art  must  be  prelimi7iary  and  not 
supplementary  to  practical  teaching  ;  for  the  knowledge  of 
how  nature  works  should  be  recognised  as  a  foundation,  not 
as  a  superstructure.  \  Vocal  instruction  in  the  direction  in- 
dicated before  practice  is  attempted  is  therefore  preferable, 
because  it  leads  to  prevention  of  faults  of  style,  and  indeed 
of  diseased  conditions  which  would  otherwise,  through 
ignorance,  result.  In  other  words,  we  urge  that  "  preven- 
tion is  better  than  cure,"  and  we  would  add  that  when 
"  cure "  is  effected  a  relapse  will  occur  under  return  to 
predisposing  and  exciting  causes. 

No  serious  reply  is  really  required  to  those  who  object 
to  scientific  teaching  on  the  ground  that  many  of  our 
greatest  singers  in  the  past  knew  nothing  of  these  things. 
That  may  be  ;  but,  in  the  first  place,  they  would  have  been 
none  the  worse  for  such  knowledge  ;  and  in  the  second 
place,  the  same  objection  would  apply  to  extension  of 
scientific  research  and  knowledge  in  all  and  every  other 
direction.  \  It  is  a  question  worthy  of  consideration  whether 
failure  or  scarcity  of  good  voices  in  the  present  may 
not  be  in  a  measure  due  to  inability  to  transmit  the  gift 
simply  because  the  greatest  possessors  in  the  recent  past 
have  been  unable,  or  unwilling,  to  give  the  necessary 
time  to  teach  by  imitation,  and  have  possibly  also  been 
ignorant    of   any    other    method    of    education.  ^    Here, 

B    2 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


again,  the  analogy  of  painting  and  singing  may  be  used 
in  illustration  of  our  argument.  We  do  not  advance 
that  now  and  again  a  great  genius  in  either  art  has  not 
shone  on  the  world  who  appeared  to  have  been  self- 
taught  ;  but  treatises  and  rules  must  be  made  for  the 
average  capacity,  not  for  the  exceptional.  It  may  be  true 
that  there  is  a  present  dearth  of  the  finest  voices,  but  it  is 
undeniable  that  there  is,  in  late  years,  a  greater  average 
excellence  in  the  musical  qualities  and  scientific  attain- 
ments of  singers,  and  also  in  the  elocutionary  qualifications 
of  many  members  of  parliament,  clergymen,  actors,  and 
other  public  speakers.  We  deny,  however,  the  assumption 
that  many  great  artists  are  "  self-taught,"  and  Leslie,  in  his 
'Handbook  for  Young  Painters,'  combats  this  idea  with 
great  vigour,  and  by  ample  illustration  proves  its  fallacy. 
All  that  he  says  could,  by  mere  change  of  the  word 
"  painting "  into  "  singing,"  apply  to  our  contention. 
Constable  also  very  pertinently  remarks  that  "  a  self-taught 
artist  is  one  taught  by  a  very  ignorant  person."  The  fact 
is  that  a  genius  may  be  said  to  illustrate  a  gift  by  which 
the  possessor  absorbs  almost,  as  it  were,  naturally,  and 
imitates  immediately,  all  the  fundamental  essential  laws  of 
his  art,  and  he  will  even  originate  ideas — possibly  without 
knowledge  of  the  laws  on  which  they  are  based,  but  always 
in  conformity  therewith.  He  will  not  have  to  work  with 
less  industry,  but  his  industry  will  always  be  rightly 
directed  ;  and  the  degree  of  facility  with  which  teaching- 
is  absorbed,  digested,  and  assimilated,  constitutes  the 
difference  between  genius  and  talent,  and  also  the  different 
grades  of  talent. 

We  cannot  better  enforce  this  portion  of  our  argu- 
ment than  with  a  quotation  from  a  recent  work  by  Leo 
Kofler  entitled  'The  Old  Italian  School  of  Singing'  (E.  S. 


A  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


Werner,  Albany,  N.Y.),  a  book  full  of  valuable  informa- 
tion, and  one  to  be  strongly  recommended.  He  asks  the 
question  :  "  How  shall  we  account  for  the  sentiments  of  a 
great  musician  and  teacher  like  F.  H.  Truhn,  of  Berlin, 
who,  in  his  pamphlet  'About  the  Art  of  Singing,'  ex- 
presses himself  in  the  following  manner  :  '  Mozart  knew 
nothing  of  Chladni's  and  Helmholtz's  researches ;  who, 
then,  need  to  have  studied  physiological  analysis  of  the 
vocal  organs  to  become  a  singer  or  a  teacher  of  singing  ? ' 
The  great  masters  of  the  old  Italian  school  were  of  the 
opposite  opinion.  The  renowned  Italian  singer,  composer, 
and  musical  writer,  Giovanni  A.  Buontempi,  who  died 
before  he  could  get  a  glimpse  of  the  glorious  era  of  the 
old  Italian  school,  informs  us  in  his  '  History  of  Music,' 
of  which  Dr.  Burney  gives  a  great  many  and  long  ab- 
stracts, that  at  his  time  the  daily  study  of  the  physical 
laws  that  govern  the  singer's  tones  was  required  of  the 
pupils.  The  same  is  told  by  Arteaga  of  his  times.  J.  F. 
Agricola,  in  his  translation  of  Tosi's  important  work,  gives 
in  the  first  chapter  a  description  in  detail  of  the  larynx 
and  its  functions.  Dr.  Marx,  in  his  noteworthy  book, 
'The  Art  of  Singing,'  in  section  ii.,  treats  upon  vocal 
physiology  with  such  a  thorough  knowledge  that  we 
wonder  how  it  was  possible  to  achieve  such  scientific 
results  thirty  years  before  Garcia  first  saw  the  vocal 
ligaments  in  operation  in  a  living  body.  The  study  of 
vocal  physiology  is  surely  a  very  essential  duty  of  the 
singing-teacher  ;  without  it  he  cannot  conscientiously  be  a 
vocal  trainer.  Would  you  trust  a  physician  of  whom  you 
know  that  he  has  not  acquired  the  necessary  knowledge  of 
the  mysteries  of  the  human  body?  Why,  then,  would 
you  pin  your  faith  upon  a  voice-trainer  who  makes  a  boast 
of  his  ignorance  of  the  natural  laws  that  govern  the  vocal 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


organs  ?  These  organs  are  the  most  delicate,  vital,  and 
complicated  parts  of  our  body.  Is  it  reasonable,  then,  to 
say  that  a  man  can  train  them  without  knowing  their 
natural  conditions  ?  No  rational  being  can  decline  the 
advice  given  by  Agricola  in  his  previously  mentioned 
translation  of  Tosi :  '  The  knowledge  of  the  vocal  organs 
is  always  very  useful  to  the  singer,  and  especially  to  the 
teacher,  and  in  many  cases  indispensable.  For  even  when 
nature  has  adorned  a  singer  with  the  best  qualities,  the 
knowledge  of  physiology  is  necessary  to  prevent  all 
damages  that  might  be  done  through  ignorance.  But 
when  a  teacher  finds  natural  faults  and  defects  in  a  voice, 
how  can  he  successfully  battle  with  them  if  he  is  un- 
acquainted with  the  seat  of  the  evil  ? '  Dr.  Haertinger 
remarks :  '  As  in  all  other  arts  and  sciences  man  can 
only  reach  the  truth  and  perfection  by  walking  in  those 
paths  along  which  he  can  follow  the  footprints  of  nature, 
so  also  in  voice-training.  If  the  student  of  the  art  of 
singing  receives  no  insight  into  the  mysterious  workshop 
of  his  vocal  organs,  then  he  will  not  only  make  no  advance 
in  the  cultivation  of  his  voice,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
will  positively  distort  it  and  lose  all  naturalness.'  This 
shows  the  fallacy  of  the  popular  belief,  that  if  a  man 
or  a  woman  is  only  a  great  singer  they  must  necessarily 
be  the  best  teachers.  If  they  have  not  studied  the  art 
of  training  voices,  the  first  chapter  of  which  must  con- 
tain the  science  of  the  natural  conditions  of  the  vocal 
organs,  they  are  unfit  to  train  others,  for  the  same 
reason  that  the  best  pianist — just  because  he  has  learned 
to  play  the  piano — cannot  be  considered  to  have  thus 
fitted  himself  to  become  a  manufacturer  of  pianos. 
For  this  he  would  have  to  undergo  considerable  extra 
training." 


A  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


That  all  teachers,  however  empirical,  realise  in  a  certain 
degree  that  the  vocal  machinery  is  capable  of  being 
brought  under  control  may  be  proved  by  the  advice  given 
on  this  subject  in  so-called  treatises  on  the  voice.  It  is 
amusingly  varied  and  contradictory. 

Thus,  singing  pupils  are  told  by  different  authorities : 
To  breathe  by  the  descent  of  the  diaphragm ;  by  drawing 
in  the  abdomen  and  raising  the  ribs ;  to  swell  out  the  sides 
while  drawing  in  the  abdomen  as  a  support  to  the  chest ! — 
To  control  the  expiration  by  means  of  the  abdominal 
and  the  chest  muscles ;  to  control  it  by  contraction  of  the 
ventricles  of  Morgagni. — To  breathe  through  the  nostrils ; 
through  the  mouth ;  through  both  at  the  same  time. — To 
keep  the  larynx  fixed ;  to  hold  it  in  a  high  position ;  to 
hold  it  in  a  low  position ;  to  make  it  rise  gradually ;  not 
to  attempt  to  control  it  at  all. — To  hold  the  mouth,  the 
neck,  the  palate,  and  the  pharynx  very  stiff  and  tense ;  to 
hold  all  these  parts  quite  loosely. — To  tighten  the  under 
lip  ;  to  depress  the  tongue ;  to  practise  the  soft  palate  till 
it  becomes  as  hard  as  a  bone. — To  sing  with  closed  mouth 
before  attacking  the  tone,  and  with  a  strong  nasal  quality 
m — m — maw,  &c. ;  to  say  "  pm "  with  closed  mouth, 
letting  the  sound  pass  through  the  nostrils,  resulting,  we 
are  assured,  in  a  wonder-working  stroke  of  the  epiglottis. 
— To  focus  the  sound  ;  to  direct  the  voice  towards  the 
roof  of  the  mouth ;  against  the  hard  palate ;  against  the 
upper  front  teeth ;  into  the  head ;  to  the  bottom  of  the 
chest ;  to  lean  the  tone  against  the  eyes !  to  sing  all  over 
the  face  ! 

Well  may  the  puzzled  student  ask  which  of  all  these 
recommendations  are  right  and  which  are  wrong !  The 
teachers  who  give  these  quasi-physiological  directions  feel 
that  the  voices  with  which  they  have  to  deal  are  wrong  in 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


some  important  respects  and  must  be  changed,  and  that 
mere  imitation  will  not  effect  the  change.  They  are, 
indeed,  unconsciously  groping  for  a  knowledge  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  vocal  organ,  which  is  as  necessary  for 
the  proper  development  of  a  healthy  voice  as  it  is  for 
the  restoration  of  a  lost  or  ruined  one.  But  there 
need  be  no  groping  where  science  can  light  up  the 
way. 

This  is  true  of  the  speaking  voice  as  well  as  of  the  voice 
in  singing,  the  same  mechanism  being  called  into  play  in 
both  cases.  All  public  speakers,  as  well  as  singers,  should 
receive  scientific  training  in  the  mechanism  and  right 
employment  of  the  organ  of  voice.  It  is  precisely  here,* 
on  the  threshold  of  their  art,  that  many  elocutionists  fail. 
They  occupy  themselves  with  articulation,  pronunciation, 
intonation,  modulation,  emphasis,  and  gesture,  and  having 
but  little,  if  any,  physiological  knowledge  are  therefore 
unable  to  form  a  true  basis  of  voice-production.  It  is 
clear  that  a  teacher  of  singing  or  of  elocution  who  is 
thoroughly  and  practically  acquainted  with  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  the  parts  over  which  he  is  to  give  his 
pupils  control,  and  who  can  skilfully  examine  a  pupil's 
larynx,  and  direct  its  movements,  is,  other  qualifications 
being  equal,  in  a  position  to  produce  better  results  than 
one  who  is  deficient  in  such  skill. 

Unfortunately  but  little  attention  is  paid  to  this  fimda- 
mental  training  ;  and  it  is  only  when  singers,  and  especially 
speakers,  find  their  voice  fail  that  they  begin  to  think 
they  have  not  used  the  organ  aright,  and  seek  for  infor- 
mation which  should  have  been  theirs  before  the  com- 
mencement of  their  public  career,  whether  it  be  in  the 
senate,  the  pulpit,  the  law-court,  the  concert-room,  or 
the  stage. 


A  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


It  is  true  that  no  person  ever  attempts  to  use  the 
singing  voice  in  pubhc  without  special  training  of  some 
sort ;  yet  there  are  still  members  of  parliament,  clergymen, 
and  other  public  speakers,  who  commence  and  continue 
their  important  work  without  any  previous  vocal  discipline. 

"  When  a  man  is  called  upon  to  address  a  large  assembly 
for  the  first  time  in  his  life,  he  is  all  at  once  made  aware 
that  the  vocal  production  to  which  he  is  habituated  fails 
him  utterly.  He  makes  a  variety  of  impromptu  experi- 
ments in  pitch  and  intensity,  some  of  them  ludicrous, 
and  all  unsuccessful ;  and  having  soared  to  heights  un- 
sustainable by  human  throat  and  insupportable  to  human 
'ear,  he  drops  past  that  mean  elevation  at  which  alone 
he  might  have  poised  himself  securely,  and  plunging 
Meeper  than  ever  plummet  sounded,'  is  lost  in  an  in- 
comprehensible  growl."  ('  The  Cultivation  of  the  Speak- 
ing Voice,'  by  John  Hullah.  London :  Macmillan  & 
Co.,  p.  23.) 

In  this  matter  of  vocal  training  we  are  in  a  retrogade 
condition  ;  for  we  find  that  the  development  of  the  voice 
was  considered  by  the  ancient  Greeks  a  part  of  the  proper 
education  of  every  student,  and  essential  to  health.  "  The 
discipline  for  the  formation  and  improvement  of  the  voice 
among  the  Athenians  was  so  comprehensive  that,  as  we  are 
informed  by  Roman  writers,  not  less  than  three  different 
classes  of  teachers  were  employed  for  this  purpose,  viz.,  the 
vociferarii,  phonasci,  and  vocales.  The  object  of  the  first 
class  seems  to  have  been  to  strengthen  the  voice  and  to  . 
extend  its  compass  ;  the  office  of  the  second  to  improve 
its  quality,  so  as  to  render  it  full,  sonorous,  and  agreeable ; 
while  the  efforts  of  the  third,  who,  perhaps,  were  considered 
as  the  finishing  masters,  were  directed  to  the  proper 
intonation    and    inflection."      ('  Philosophy  of  Voice  and 


lo  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

Speech/  by  James  Hunt.  London,  1858.  Longman, 
Browne  &  Co.,  p.  350.)  This  training,  in  which  all  youths 
of  respectability  participated,  was  distinct  from  that  of 
the  rhetorician  which  followed  the  more  scientific  teaching 
just  described. 

The  advisability  of  imitating  the  Athenians  by  establish- 
ing classes  for  voice  training  on  scientific  principles  is 
earnestly  commended  to  those  in  authority  in  our  uni- 
versities, and  in  our  musical  and  theological  colleges.  A 
preacher  is  something  more  than  a  sermon-maker,  he  is  a 
"  thought-creator "  and  a  "  thought-conveyer,"  and  it  is 
his  duty  to  convey  his  thoughts  to  his  auditors  in  a 
suitable  and  impressive  manner.  But  if  his  tone-produc- 
tion be  faulty,  rendering  his  voice  unmusical  and  unsym- 
pathetic; if  he  put  upon  it  an  unnatural  strain  and  use 
an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  force ;  or  if  his  speech 
be  weak  and  unintelligible,  then  his  most  beautiful 
thoughts  and  profoundest  learning  will  be  powerless 
to  elevate  and  instruct  his  congregation.  For  himself, 
he  will  be  fortunate  if  he  escape  some  of  the  many 
throat  troubles  which  are  only  peculiar  to  clergymen 
because  they,  of  all  voice-users  of  the  higher  grades,  speak 
most  frequently  in  an  unnatural  voice. 

No  man  who  is  conscious  of  the  ability  to  speak 
effectively  can  undervalue  the  power  of  a  pleasant  voice ; 
and  no  hearer  of  a  melodious  voice  but  will  acknowledge 
its  influence.  We  have,  probably,  all  been  charmed  and 
our  attention  riveted  by  such  a  voice,  even  when  the 
discourse  was  not  above  commonplace.  The  converse  of 
this  is,  alas,  more  often  met  wdth.  It  is  a  fact  that  many 
of  the  greatest  thinkers,  scholars,  and  writers  use  in  public 
speaking  and  reading  a  heavy,  low  monotone,  or  they  rasp 
the  ear  with  a  high  and  strident  pitch.     Their  "  thoughts 


A  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY.  n 


that  breathe  and  words  that  burn"  fall  lifeless  and  cold, 
nay,  even  weary,  and  repel  their  listeners,  who  experience  a 
sense  of  relief  when  the  inharmonious  voice  ceases  ;  the 
speaker  also  being  thankful  that  his  painful  struggle  to 
be  heard  is  over.  How  much  the  influence  of  the  un- 
fortunate possessor  of  such  a  voice  is  nullified!  If  a 
statesman,  how  small  must  be  his  success  in  directing  the 
fortunes  of  a  nation!  If  a  clergyman,  painfully  will  he 
feel  that  his  earnest  endeavours  avail  him  nothing.  If  a 
barrister,  he  sees  judge  and  juryman  sleeping,  and  to  the 
detriment  of  his  client  he  may  lose  his  carefully  prepared 
case.  Yet  in  almost  every  instance  a  voice  which  has  no 
inherent  beauty  may,  by  correct  training,  become  attractive 
and  pleasant,  and  obtain  clearness,  smoothness,  and  com- 
manding resonance. 

The  following  quotation,  taken  from  a  lecture  by  Cull, 
on  '  Reading  Aloud,'  is  much  to  the  point :  "  By  the  term 
a  highly  cultivated  voice  I  do  not  mean  the  application 
of  those  rules  of  reading  which  are  taught  by  elocution 
masters,  but  a  cultivation  of  the  voice  on  sound  acoustic 
and  physiological  principles,  analogous  to  those  which  are 
so  eminently  successful  in  cultivating  the  voice  of  song. 
This  is  not  mere  theory.  Voices  have  been  cultivated  on 
such  principles  with  great  success.  Weak  ones  have  been 
strengthened  and  improved  in  flexibility  and  tone  ;  and 
even  those  supposed  to  be  permanently  silenced  by  long- 
continued  clergyman's  sore  throat  have  been  restored  to 
public  usefulness."  {'  King's  College  Lectures  on  Elocu- 
tion,' by  Charles  John  Plumptre.  London  :  Triibner  & 
Co.  Appendix  II.,  p.  448.)  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
time  is  not  far  distant  when  there  will  be  at  our  uni- 
versities and  training  colleges  a  chair  of  vocal  physiology. 
Wealthy  and  benevolent  persons  have  here  a  noble  object 


12  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

for  their  liberality,  presenting  to  them  an  opportunity  of 
preventing  for  all  time  much  suffering,  both  physical  and 
mental ;  and  of  enabling  numbers  of  devoted  and  talented 
men  to  continue  to  the  end  their  valuable  services  in  the 
cause  of  the  commonwealth  and  of  religion.  By  fur- 
nishing the  means  of  instruction,  and  by  making  obliga- 
tory to  each  student  a  course  of  practical  study  on 
the  formation,  management,  and  preservation  of  the 
voice,  clergyman's  sore  throat  and  other  cognate  disorders 
which  now  seriously  mar  the  prospects  and  hinder  the 
usefulness  of  many  public  speakers  will  be  much  less 
frequent. 

Clergymen  and  other  public  speakers  break  down  with 
injured  or  ruined  voice  and  enfeebled  health,  more  fre- 
quently through  simple  ignorance  of  the  true  method  of 
voice-production  than  from  all  other  causes  combined. 

For,  alas .  there  is  a  sadder  phase  than  that  already 
sketched.  Tne  habitual  faulty  use  of  the  respiratory  and 
vocal  muscles  produces  congestion  of  the  vascular  supply 
to  the  mucous  membrane,  disorder  of  the  secreting  fol- 
licles, irritation  of  the  sensory  nerves  of  the  throat  and  un- 
certainty of  action  of  the  vocal  muscles,  each  resulting  in 
hoarseness,  and  deterioration  of  power  both  to  produce 
and  to  control  the  desired  tones ;  so  that  all  functional 
exercise  occasions  fatigue  and  nervous  depression,  with  the 
addition  of  injury  to  the  general  health.  Chronic  throat 
disorder  is  thus  estabHshed,  which,  if  neglected,  is  obstinate 
of  cure.  Singers  who  occupy  a  middle  place  in  art,  and 
more  frequently  the  clergy,  seem  to  be  peculiarly  liable  to 
these  maladies ;  and  it  is  painful  to  see  them  thus  broken 
down  in  health,  sometimes  to  even  a  vital  extent,  as  well 
as  in  voice  for  want  of  proper  knowledge  as  to  a  right 
use  of  their  vocal  organs.     It  ought  not  to  be.     Clergy- 


yi  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSLOLOGY.  13 

men  should  not  be  sent  to  their  high  calling  unprepared 
for  the  physical  part  of  their  vocation,  ignorant  of  the 
mechanism  and  management  of  the  wonderful  instrument 
upon  which  they  play  in  speaking. 

It  has  been  our  great  gratification  to  have  restored  to 
vigour  by  the  use  of  scientific  vocal  gymnastics,  sometimes 
even  without  any  medical  treatment,  many  voices  which 
had  utterly  broken  down  under  faulty  production  ;  but  if 
speakers  and  singers  would  start  on  their  public  career 
properly  prepared  for  the  physical  part  of  their  work,  no 
voice  restoration  would  be  required.  Knowing  how  to 
produce  their  voice  they  would  avoid  errors  which  destroy 
that  most  perfectly  constructed  and,  under  fair  use,  most 
lasting  of  all  musical  instruments. 

Stammering  and  stuttering,  which  afflict  more  persons 
than  is  perhaps  imagined,  would  be  much  more  frequently 
cured  than  they  now  are  if  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
physiology  of  the  vocal  apparatus  were  possessed  by  those 
who  undertake  their  treatment;  but  this  point  can  only  be 
alluded  to  here,  and  will  be  dealt  with  in  detail  in  the 
special  section  treating  on  this  question. 

Many  intending  students  of  singing  who  read  this 
chapter  will  probably  ask,  "  How  is  true  vocal  culture  to 
be  obtained,  seeing  that  not  only  is  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  art  of  music  needed,  but  also  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  vocal  physiology  ?  "  Doctors,  especially  those 
who  make  affections  of  the  throat  a  specialty,  have  the 
requisite  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
voice ;  but  a  doctor  whose  time  is  occupied  in  the  cure  of 
disease  cannot  give  attention  to  the  vocal  culture  of  his 
patients.  Neither  has  every  doctor  musical  knowledge 
and  taste.  Doctors  are  all  naturally  on  the  outlook  for 
symptoms  of  disease,  and  the  specialist,  no  less  than  the 


14  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

generalist,  seeks  for  the  original  cause  in  the  general 
constitutional  fault ;  he  goes  even  farther,  and  tries  to  put 
his  finger  on  the  exact  local  seat  of  trouble,  and  his 
remedial  measures  are  not  confined  to  the  drug  or  the 
knife,  but  also  include  correction  of  both  general  and  local 
trouble.  Yet  all  this  has  nothing  to  do  with  scientific 
vocal  culture,  for  v^hich  there  is  a  wide  field  outside  the 
province  of  the  physician,  although  the  work  runs  some- 
what on  parallel  lines.  Teachers  are  needed  who  have 
gone  through  a  regular  course  of  physiological  and 
anatomical  training ;  who  have  learnt  the  way  in  which 
all  the  muscles  of  the  vocal  apparatus  act,  so  that  on 
hearing  a  faulty  voice  they  may  be  able  to  say  which 
muscle  or  set  of  muscles  requires  to  be  brought  into  play, 
or  subdued  in  action,  as  the  case  may  be.  Nor  must  they 
be  unpractical  and  satisfy  themselves  with  merely  theoris- 
ing on  the  subject.  They  must  also,  having  discovered 
the  fault,  know  how  to  correct  it;  for  though  the  phy- 
sician has  gone  far  to  success  when  he  has  made  a  correct 
diagnosis  of  disease,  he  will  not  cure  his  patient  unless 
he  pursues  a  proper  remedial  treatment.  Above  all,  and 
before  all,  the  scientific  teacher  must  be  able  to  apply  his 
anatomical  knowledge  to  the  development  of  the  respira- 
tory organs  to  their  full  capacity. 

It  is  possible  that  few  will  have  a  sufficient  liking  for 
physiology  to  study  this  portion  of  the  subject  in  the 
dissecting  room  as  well  as  from  books,  and  to  verify  in 
their  own  and  other  living  persons'  throats  the  discoveries 
already  made.  Yet  but  little  good  will  be  effected  without 
this  practice,  especially  that  of  laryngoscopic  investigation 
of  the  vocal  organs  in  the  performance  of  the  various 
functional  acts ;  for  the  dead  and  excised  larynx  cannot  be 
made  to  act  as  a  living  one. 


A  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY.  15 

An  intelligent  use  of  the  laryngoscope  and  application 
of  its  teaching  will  give  a  greater  facility  in  the  art  of  voice- 
cultivation  than  has  hitherto  been  enjoyed.  Inexpert 
manipulators  who  are  unable  to  use  the  laryngoscope 
properly,  and  therefore  cannot  produce  a  good  tone  while 
seeking  to  investigate  with  it,  illogically  come  to  the  con- 
clusion that  only  forced  and  unnatural  sounds  can  be 
made  while  using  the  laryngoscope,  and  that,  in  conse- 
quence, its  teachings  are  unreliable.  We  know  that  a  bad 
workman  generally  blames  his  tools  instead  of  his  own  in- 
efficiency ;  and  here  the  fault  lies  solely  with  the  operator. 
Doubtless  there  are  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  but  none 
that  are  insuperable,  and  in  the  proper  place  we  shall  give 
such  detailed  and  plain  directions  as  will  greatly  facihtate 
pursuance  of  this  interesting  study.  Let  not  the  earnest 
worker  be  discouraged  by  a  few  failures ;  ultimate  success 
is  surely  attainable,  and  the  result  will  abundantly  reward 
his  patience  and  perseverance. 

It  must,  however,  be  understood  that  in  thus  advocating 
a  scientific  basis  for  the  production,  cultivation,  and  pre- 
servation of  the  voice  we  are  not  thinking  of  laryngoscopy 
alone.  It  is  a  mistake  to  speak  of  this  as  though  it  were  the 
one  and  all  of  vocal  physiology.  It  is,  on  the  contrary, 
only  a  small  part  of  it,  and  would  avail  the  student  but  little 
were  he  not  also  fully  acquainted  with  the  vocal  apparatus 
as  a  whole,  which,  as  will  be  seen  further  on,  comprises 
separate  mechanisms  for  production,  emission,  and  reson- 
ance, with  many  other  minor  factors  to  regulate  the 
qualities  of  clearness  and  beauty  of  sound,  and  distinctness 
of  utterance.  The  immediate  origin  of  the  voice  is,  it  is 
true,  in  the  vocal  hgaments ;  but  as  the  surgeon  has,  in 
the  cure  of  all  disease,  whether  of  the  throat  or  of  any 
other  part,  to  go  far  beyond  the  seat  of  local  manifestation. 


1 6  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

SO  the  teacher  and  student  of  voice-production  must  not 
think  of  the  voice  simply  as  the  result  of  the  vibrations  of 
the  vocal  ligaments.  Such  a  narrow  view  of  the  subject 
would  necessarily  lead  to  error  and  failure,  and  men  who 
are  continually  talking  or  writing  about  the  action  of  the 
"vocal  cords"  or  of  the  "ventricles  of  Morgagni,"  or 
indeed  of  any  other  part  of  the  mechanism,  instead  of 
viewing  the  instrument  as  a  whole,  do  not  deserve  the 
name  of  scientists.  The  greatest  attention  to  even  the 
minutest  details  is  certainly  indispensable  in  this  as  in  any 
other  field  of  research ;  but  details  are  important  only  in 
their  respective  places,  and  they  should  never  be  so 
magnified  as  to  assume  undue  proportions,  or  to  distort 
our  view  of  the  subject  in  its  entirety.  Though  much  of 
singing  is  due  to  automatic  muscular  action  in  the  vocal 
organ,  yet  physiological  instruction  as  to  the  best  method 
of  filling  the  lungs  so  as  to  set  the  cords  in  vibration,  as 
to  economy  of  expiration  so  as  to  produce  efficient  and 
even  vocal  tone,  and  the  many  facts  to  be  hereafter  de- 
tailed, bearing  on  the  altogether  voluntary  control  over 
the  tongue,  lips,  and  soft  palate,  are  not  only  of  essential 
service  to  the  singer,  but  of  great  independent  interest  to 
all  students  of  the  art,  and  cannot  fail  to  lead  to  a  more 
intelligent  exposition  of  their  capabilities. 

This  being  agreed,  we  have  to  study  the  construction  of 
all  these  parts  in  detail  and  as  a  whole,  and  to  deduce  from 
this  study  how  to  govern  their  movements.  With  the 
knowledge  thus  acquired,  muscular  efforts  can  be  ex- 
plained, directed,  or  controlled ;  weakness  can  be  changed 
into  strength,  and  harshness  into  sweetness.  It  is,  in  short, 
the  business  of  teachers  of  singing  and  of  elocution  to 
commence  where  scientific  investigators  have  left  off;  to 
acquaint  themselves  with  the  physiological  and  acoustic  laws 


A  PLEA  FOR  VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY.  17 

governing  the  voice ;  and  then  to  turn  these  to  practical 
account  in  drilHng  their  pupils.  Such  at  any  rate  is  the 
task  that  we  set  ourselves  to  accomplish  in  the  following 
pages,  and,  indeed,  we  propose  to  go  somewhat  further. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  as  a  result  of  the  non-scientific 
character  of  much  of  the  instruction  in  the  art  of  singing 
and  speaking,  very  false  and  ignorant  ideas  exist  amongst 
voice-users  as  to  their  mode  of  life,  and  as  to  the  ailments 
which  affect  their  sanitary  well-being,  both  general  and 
professional.  We  shall  endeavour,  without  transgressing 
beyond  the  bounds  of  reason,  to  give  such  information 
on  the  more  prominent  points  of  hygiene  and  health 
which  affect  the  voice-user  in  his  daily  career  as  will 
render  his  work  more  easy,  and  will  lead  to  the  detection 
and  remedy  of  some  of  his  health  defects.  There  cannot 
be  a  doubt  that  want  of  such  knowledge  is  at  the  root 
of  many  a  vocal  failure.  We  shall  feel  ourselves  happy 
indeed  if  we  can  supply  that  want. 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


THE  LAWS  OF  SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE 

VOICE. 

Musical  Sound  is  the  result  of  vibrations  which  occur 
at  regular  intervals,  and  with  a  sufficient  rapidity  of 
succession.  We  can  see  the  vibrations  by  watching  a 
sounding  string.  Or  we  can  demonstrate  them  by  draw- 
ing a  sounding  tuning-fork,  with  a  style  attached  to  one 
of  the  prongs,  over  a  piece  of  smoked  glass,  when  the 
style  will  not  produce  a  straight  but  a  wavy  line,  reveal- 
ing the  to-and-fro  motion  of  the  prong.  But  the  most 
striking  manner  in  which  sonorous  vibrations  can  be 
rendered  visible  consists  in  Chladni's  interesting  experi- 
ments, which  show  that  when  sand  is  scattered  over  a 
sounding  plate  of  glass  or  of  metal,  fastened  with  a  clamp 
in  the  centre,  the  sand  is  driven  from  the  vibrating  parts  of 
the  surfaces  and  collects  along  the  lines  remaining  station- 
ary, which  are  called  nodal  lines.  By  drawing  a  bow  over 
the  edge  of  such  plates,  and  by  interrupting  the  vibrations 
at  various  points,  by  pressing  a  finger  against  them,  sand- 
figures  of  extreme  beauty  may  be  produced. 

We  can  diho/eel  sonorous  vibrations  by  gently  touching 
with  the  finger  a  suspended  sounding  bell.  Hang  up  a 
little  piece  of  cork  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  just 
touch  the  rim  of  the  bell  and  it  will  be  thrown  into 
motion.  In  order  to  prove  that  sound  is  the  result  of 
vibrations  touch  the  bell  heavily  enough  to  stop  the 
vibrations,  and  you  also  stop  the  tone.     Strike  a  tuning- 


THE  LAWS  OF  SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE  VOICE.     19 

fork  and  touch  one  of  its  prongs  with  the  tip  of  your 
tongue,  the  vibrations  will  cause  a  tickling  sensation  so 
strong  as  to  send  a  shock  through  your  whole  body.  Or 
again,  if  the  vibrating  tuning-fork  be  held  so  as  to  touch  a 
lightly  suspended  button,  the  latter  will  be  violently  dashed 
aside. 

These  vibrations  do  not  give  rise  to  the  sensation 
sounds  unless  they  throw  our  hearing  apparatus  into 
similar  vibrations.  There  is  consequently  a  medium 
required  to  communicate  them  to  the  ear.  This  medium 
is  the  air-ocean  by  which  we  are  surrounded  on  all  sides, 
and  that  it  really  is  the  sound-conveying  medium  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  without  air  we  do  not  hear. 
Suspend  a  bell  connected  with  clockwork  under  the 
receiver  of  an  air-pump,  exhaust  the  receiver  as  perfectly 
as  possible,  and  then  set  the  clockwork  going.  You 
will  see  the  hammer  striking  the  bell,  but  no  sound  will 
be  heard.  As  you  re-admit  the  air  gently  by  degrees 
you  hear  the  sound,  very  faintly  at  first,  but  louder  and 
louder  as  the  air  surrounding  the  bell  becomes  more  and 
more  dense;  the  vibrations  being  transmitted  by  the  air 
inside  the  receiver  to  the  glass,  and  thence  to  the  air 
outside. 

The  vibrations  of  the  sounding  body  are  communicated 
to  the  air,  not  by  propelling  individual  particles  of  it 
through  space  like  a  shot,  but  by  setting  up  to-and-fro 
motions  which  knock,  so  to  speak,  one  particle  against 
its  neighbour,  after  which  it  rebounds  and  finally  returns 
to  its  original  position ;  just  as  the  excursions  of  a  pen- 
dulum get  smaller  by  degrees,  until  at  last  they  cease 
entirely.  The  neighbouring  particle  imparts  the  motion  to 
another  one,  and  also  returns  to  its  original  position,  and 
so  on.     Alternate  condensations  and  rarefactions  of  the  air 

c  2 


20  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


are  thus  produced,  travelling  outwards  from  the  sounding 
body,  each  condensation  together  with  its  succeeding 
rarefaction  being  termed  a  sound  wave.  Let  it  be  under- 
stood that  while  these  waves  are  travelling  along,  the 
particles  of  which  they  are  formed  merely  execute  a  very 
limited  movement  to  and  fro.  It  must  further  be  observed 
that  the  sound  waves  do  not  only  travel  in  one  direction, 
but  in  every  direction  all  around.  We  have  therefore  to 
think  of  them  as  hollow  spheres  whose  diameter  increases 
in  size  as  they  proceed  on  their  journey. 

We  have  thus  seen  how  a  vibratory  motion  is  com- 
municated to  the  air  and  transmitted  through  it  in  the 
form  of  waves.  These  waves,  striking  the  drumhead  of 
the  ear,  cause  it  to  vibrate  ;  the  vibrations  thus  set  up  are 
transmitted  by  the  auditory  nerve  to  the  brain  where  they 
are  perceived  as  sound. 

Now  as  sound  travels  in  waves  like  light,  we  should 
expect  to  see  it  reflected  like  light ;  and  that  such  is 
really  the  case  is  proved  by  the  echo.  When  the  sound 
waves  strike  against  a  wall,  a  cliiF,  or  any  other  opposing 
surface,  they  return  to  us  provided  the  reflecting  surface 
is  at  right  angles  to  a  line  drawn  from  the  point  where 
we  stand.  If  this  is  not  the  case  the  echo  will  be  sent 
in  another  direction,  and  it  may  be  heard  by  other  per- 
sons, but  not  by  him  who  produced  the  original  sound. 
The  reflecting  surface  must  also  be  far  enough  away  to 
allow  the  ear  to  distinguish  the  echo  from  the  original 
sound,  or  the  two  will  merge  into  each  other.  If  two 
reflecting  surfaces  are  inclined  towards  each  other  in  such 
a  way  as  to  throw  the  reflection  of  the  same  sound  to  and 
fro,  the  echo  is  repeated — in  some  cases,  over  and  over 
again,  each  time,  of  course,  less  loudly,  until  at  last  it  dies 
away  altogether.     There  are  wonderful  instances  of  this  on 


THE  LAWS  OF  SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE  VOICE.     21 

record,  one  of  the  most  famous  being  the  echo  between 
the  wings  of  a  castle  not  far  from  Milan,  which  repeats 
the  report  of  a  pistol  sixty  times. 

An  illustration  of  the  reflection  of  sound  by  curved 
roofs  or  ceilings  may  be  found  in  the  whispering  gallery  of 
St.  Paul's,  where  the  faintest  sound  is  conveyed  from  one 
side  of  the  dome  to  the  other,  but  is  not  heard  at  any 
intermediate  point.  Inconvenient  secrets  have  been  thus 
revealed,  an  instance  of  which  has  been  cited  by  Sir  John 
Herschel.  "  In  one  of  the  cathedrals  in  Sicily  the  con- 
fessional was  so  placed  that  the  whispers  of  the  penitents 
were  reflected  by  the  curved  roof,  and  brought  to  a  focus 
at  a  distant  part  of  the  edifice.  The  focus  was  discovered 
by  accident,  and  for  some  time  the  person  who  discovered 
it  took  pleasure  in  hearing,  and  in  bringing  his  friends  to 
hear,  utterances  intended  for  the  priest  alone.  One  day  it 
is  said  his  own  wife  occupied  the  penitential  stool,  and 
both  he  and  his  friends  were  thus  made  acquainted  with 
secrets  which  were  the  reverse  of  amusing  to  one  of  the 
party."  ('  On  Sound,'  by  Tyndall.  London  :  Longmans 
&  Co.,  2nd  ed.,  p.  16.) 

Vibrations  may  be  either  simple  or  compound. 
Simple  vibrations  follow  the  laws  of  a  pendulum,  and  are, 
therefore,  also  called  pe^idular  vibrations.  An  instance  of 
compound  vibrations  is  furnished  by  a  string,  which  swings 
not  only  up  and  down  and  from  side  to  side,  but  also  in 
segments.  Every  form  of  compound  vibration  may  be 
analysed  into,  or  may  be  said  to  be  composed  of,  simple 
or  pendular  vibrations,  but  no  explanation  of  this  very 
compUcated  matter  can  be  attempted  here. 

Simple  Tones,  such  as  the  highest  notes  of  the  piano- 
forte, or  tuning-forks  mounted  on  suitable  resonance 
boxes,  are  the  result  of  simple  vibrations. 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


Compound  Tones  are  the  result  oi  compound  n'^x2J(\ow'^. 
The  ear  has  the  power  of  analysing  a  compound  tone,  and 
of  dividing  it  into  its  component  parts.  This  amounts  to 
saying  that  when  we  hear  a  compound  tone  "  the  ear 
experiences  the  same  eiFect  as  if  ?l  certain  series  of  simple 
tones  having  definite  musical  pitches  and  very  different 
degrees  of  loudness  were  sounded  together.  Of  course,  no 
such  tones  are  really  sounded,  but  as  the  mental  effect  is 
the  same  as  if  they  were,  it  becomes  convenient  to  speak 
of  compound  musical  tone  as  consisting  of  a  series  of  simple 
partial  tones,  and  to  reason  upon  these  partial  tones  as  if 
they  alone  existed,  instead  of  the  compound  tone  itself." 
('  Pronunciation  for  Singers,'  by  Alexander  J.  ElHs. 
London :  J.  Curwen  &  Sons,  p.  8.) 

The  Force  or  Loudness  of  a  tone  depends  upon  the 
amplitude  or  largeness  of  the  vibrations.  This  is  easily 
proved.  Draw  a  bow  smartly  over  a  string.  You  will  see 
large  vibrations  and  hear  a  loud  tone,  and  in  the  same 
proportion  as  the  vibrations  grow  smaller,  the  tone  will 
become  fainter,  until  at  last  both  will  die  away.  Loudness 
also  depends  upon  the  distance  at  which  the  tone  is  heard ; 
the  nearer  the  instrument  producing  the  tone  is  to  the 
ear  the  greater  is  its  force.  This  is  a  matter  of  every-day 
experience,  and  needs  no  demonstration. 

And  lastly,  loudness  depends  upon  the  density  of  the  air 
in  which  the  tone  is  generated.  We  have  already  had  a 
proof  of  this  by  observing  that  the  sound  of  a  bell  under  a 
receiver  is  fainter  the  more  the  receiver  is  exhausted,  and 
that  it  becomes  louder  the  more  air  is  re-admitted.  In  a 
similar  manner  the  loudness  of  a  tone  generated  in  the 
rarefied  air  of  a  high  mountain  is  less  than  that  of  a 
tone  generated  under  otherwise  identical  conditions  in  the 
denser  air  of  a  valley  below.     It  must  be  observed  that  the 


THE  LAWS  OF  SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE  VOICE.     23 

loudness  of  a  tone  does  not  depend  upon  the  density  of 
the  air  in  which  it  is  heard,  but  upon  that  in  which  it  is 
generated.  Hence  a  cannon  fired  in  the  rarefied  air  of 
a  high  mountain  will  not  be  heard  in  the  denser  air  of  the 
valley ;  while  the  sound  of  the  same  cannon  with  the 
same  charge  when  fired  below  will  be  distinctly  heard 
abov^e. 

The  Pitch  or  height  of  a  tone  depends  solely  upon  the 
rate  of  vibration  ;  the  greater  the  number  of  vibrations  in 
a  given  time  the  higher  being  the  pitch. 

Fewer  than  sixteen  vibrations  per  second  are  not 
perceived  by  the  ear  as  a  tone,  but  merely  as  a  succession 
of  separate  shocks;  and  more  than  38,000  vibrations  per 
second  altogether  cease  to  produce  a  sensation  of  sound. 

The  following  table  shows  the  vibrational  number  of  a 
few  extreme  tones  used  in  music : — 


Large  organs  .... 
Latest  grand  pianos 
Ordinary  modern  pianos  . 
Double  bass  .  .  .  .  • 
Pianos  with  usual  compass 
Pianos  with  exceptional  compass 
Piccolo  flute 


.  Civ 

.  Aiv 

•  Cm 

•  Eni 

.  A'" 

.  C^ 


i6|-  vibrations  per  second. 
271- 


33 

3520 
4224 
4752 


The  lowest  of  these  tones  are  too  near  the  point  at 
which  the  ear  perceives  sound  only  as  a  series  of  successive 
shocks ;  they  are  therefore  musically  imperfect,  and  can 
only  be  used  in  connection  with  their  higher  octaves. 
The  highest  tones  of  the  above  table  on  the  other  hand 
are  shrill  and  unpleasant.  The  tones  which  can  be 
used  in  music  to  best  advantage  have  from  40  to  4000 
vibrations  per  second,  and  cover  a  compass  of  seven 
octaves. 

The  lowest  tone  of  a  bass  voice  is  probably  Fm  with  44 


24  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

vibrations  per  second,  and  the  highest  Hmit  on  record  is 
that  of  "  Bastardella,"  who  is  said  to  have  sung  B^^  with 
1980  vibrations  per  second.  According  to  these  figures 
the  entire  range  of  the  human  voice  covers  about  fiYQ 
octaves  and  a  half. 

Compound  Tones,  as  we  have  seen  before,  consist  of  a 
number  of  partial  tones.  These  the  human  ear  is  capable 
of  distinguishing,  and  the  faculty  of  thus  analysing  a  tone 
may  be  greatly  increased  by  properly  directed  practice. 
But  Helmholtz  has  provided  us  with  *' resonators" 
enabling  us  to  reinforce  each  of  the  partials  separately 
and  thereby  to  recognise  each  one  of  them  without  any 
difficulty.  These  resonators  consist  of  hollow  globes  made 
of  glass  or  of  metal,  with  two  openings  at  opposite  points. 
One  of  these  openings  is  large  and  has  sharp  edges,  while 
the  other  one  passes  through  a  sort  of  nipple  suitable 
for  insertion  in  the  ear.  If  we  stop  one  ear  and  put  the 
nipple  of  a  resonator  in  the  other,  most  of  the  tones 
produced  about  us  will  be  made  very  dull ;  but  if  the 
proper  tone  of  the  resonator  be  sounded  it  will  strike  the 
ear  most  powerfully.  A  series  of  such  resonators,  tuned 
to  diff-erent  notes,  will  enable  even  musically  untrained  ears 
to  distinguish  faint  partial  tones,  though  accompanied  by 
others  which  are  very  strong. 

Upon  analysing  a  number  of  compound  'tones,  we  find 
the  arrangement  of  the  partials  as  follows  : — 

I.  The  prime  tone  by  which  the  pitch  of  the  compound 
is  generally  allowed  to  be  determined. 

II.  A  partial  an  octave  above  the  prime. 

III.  A  partial  a  fifth  above  No.  II.,  or  a  twelfth  above 
the  prime. 

IV.  A  partial  a  fourth  above  No.  III.,  or  two  octaves 
above  the  prime. 


THE  LAWS  OF  SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE  VOICE.    25 

V.  A  partial  a  major  third  above  No.  IV.,  or  two 
octaves  and  a  major  third  above  the  prime. 

VI.  A  partial  a  minor  third  above  No.  V.,  or  two 
octaves  and  a  fifth  above  the  prime. 

VII.  A  partial  almost  exactly  a  minor  third  above  No. 
VI.,  or  two  octaves  and  a  sub-minor  seventh  above  the 
prime. 

VIII.  A  partial  one  tone  above  No.  VII.,  or  three 
octaves  above  the  prime. 

The  compound  tone  C  would  consequently  be  ex- 
pressed in  musical  notation  thus  : — 


:c^ 


i 


^=^=^ 


d,  d  ^  s  d'       PI'  8'         ta'         d» 

12  345678 

There  are  many  more  higher  partials  in  some  compound 
tones  than  the  above  eight.  The  low  tones  of  a  har- 
monium, for  instance,  have  at  least  twice  the  number,  and 
the  tones  of  a  good  bass  voice  have  at  least  twenty  partials. 
But  those  mentioned  above  are  the  most  important  of  the 
series. 

The  partials  occur  in  every  compound  tone  in  the  same 
relative  position.  This  does  not  mean  that  they  are  all 
present  in  every  case  ;  it  simply  means  that  the  order  in 
which  the  series  is  established  is  unchangeable;  thus  a 
tone  may  contain  only  partials  Nos.  i,  3,  and  5,  or  Nos. 
I,  2,  4,  and  8,  all  the  others  being  absent;  but  no  partial 
can,  under  any  circumstances,  crop  up  out  of  the  regular 
order,  say  between  Nos.  i  and  2,  or  between  Nos.  2  and  3, 
and  so  forth. 

We  have   so  far  only  touched  upon  two  properties  of 

*  Sliglitly  below  the  pitch  here  indicated. 


26  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

tone,  namely  loudness  and  pitch.  We  are  now  in  a 
position  to  discuss  the  third,  which  is  quality. 

The  Quality  of  a  tone  is  "  that  pecuharity  which 
distinguishes  the  musical  tone  of  a  violin  from  that  of  a 
flute,  or  that  of  a  clarionet,  or  that  of  the  human  voice, 
when  all  these  instruments  produce  the  same  note  at  the 
same  pitch."  ('  The  Sensations  of  Tone,'  by  Helmholtz. 
Translated  by  Alexander  J.  Ellis.  London :  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  p.  17.)  The  quality  of  tone  is  generally 
described  as  depending  upon  the  form  of  the  vibrations. 
"This  assertion  which  physicists  hitherto  based  simply 
upon  the  fact  of  their  knowing  that  the  quality  of  tone 
could  not  possibly  depend  on  the  periodic  time  of 
vibration,  or  on  its  amplitude,  will  be  strictly  examined 
hereafter.  It  will  be  shown  to  be  so  far  correct,  that  every 
different  quality  of  tone  requires  a  different  form  of 
vibration  ;  but  on  the  other  hand  it  will  also  appear  that 
different  forms  of  vibration  may  correspond  to  the  same 
quality  of  tone."     (Helmholtz,  op.  cit.,  p.  32.) 

If  we  could  detach  the  prime  tones  of  compounds  from 
their  upper  partials  we  should  find  them,  loudness  and 
pitch  being  alike,  undistinguishable  from  each  other,  no 
matter  by  whdt  instrument  they  were  produced ;  and  it  is 
the  co-existence  with  the  prime  tone  of  its  upper  partials, 
their  relative  position  and  their  relative  degree  of  loudness, 
which  make  the  difference  between  the  tones  produced  by 
various  instruments.  That  such  is  really  the  case  Helm- 
holtz has  demonstrated  by  experiment  in  the  following 
manner;  he  arranged  a  series  of  tuning-forks,  corre- 
sponding to  the  partials  of  a  compound  tone  as  described 
before.  He  kept  them  in  constant  motion  by  electro- 
magnets, and  a  resonator  was  attached  to  every  one  of 
them  which  he  could  open  and  shut  at  pleasure  by  simply 


THE  LAWS  OF  SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE  VOICE.     27 

touching  the  digitals  of  a  httle  keyboard.  He  was  thus 
in  a  position  to  reinforce  any  or  all  of  the  tones  of  the 
tuning-forks  in  various  degrees  of  loudness  ;  and  he  found 
that  he  could  by  these  means  imitate,  not  only  the  quality 
of  most  musical  instruments,  but  also  that  of  several  vowel 
sounds. 

We  therefore  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  quality  of 
a  tone  depends — 

1.  Upon  the  number  of  partials  of  which  the  tone 
consists. 

2.  Upon  their  relative  position. 

3.  Upon  their  relative  degree  of  loudness. 

This  subject  is  further  illustrated  by  the  following  rules : 

1.  "  Simple  Tories  have  a  very  soft,  pleasant  sound,  free 
from  all  roughness,  but  wanting  in  power,  and  dull  at  low 
pitches." 

2.  "  Mttsical  Tones ^  which  are  accompanied  by  a  mode- 
rately loud  series  of  the  lower  upper  partial  tones,  up  to 
about  the  sixth  partial,  are  more  harmonious  and  musical. 
Compared  with  simple  tones  they  are  rich  and  splendid, 
while  they  are  at  the  same  time  perfectly  sweet  and  soft 
if  the  higher  upper  partials  are  absent." 

3.  "  If  only  the  uneven  partials  are  present,  the  quality 
of  tone  is  hollow^  and,  when  a  large  number  of  such  upper 
partials  are  present,  nasal.  When  the  prime  tone  pre- 
dominates, the  quality  of  the  tone  is  rich  or  full ;  but 
when  the  prime  tone  is  not  sufficiently  superior  in  strength 
to  the  upper  partials,  the  quality  of  the  tone  is  poor  or 
emptyT 

4.  "  When  partial  tones  higher  than  the  sixth  or 
seventh  are  very  distinct,  the  quality  of  the  tone  is  cut- 
ting and  rough.  The  degree  of  harshness  may  be 
very  different.      When    their  force   is   inconsiderable  the 


28  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

higher  upper  partials  do  not  essentially  detract  from  the 
musical  applicability  of  the  compound  tones ;  on  the 
contrary,  they  are  useful  in  giving  character  and  expres- 
sion to  the  music."     (Helmholtz,  op.  cit.,  p.  172.) 

Hitherto  we  have  only  spoken  of  what  may  be  described 
as  the  inhere7it  quality  of  tone.  But  in  addition  to  this 
there  are  other  peculiarities  of  which  notice  must  be  taken, 
namely,  the  various  ways  of  beginning  and  o^.  ending  a  tone, 
and  those  more  or  less  notict2ih\Q  accompanying  noises  from 
which  no  tone  is  absolutely  free. 

Most  people  know  that  it  makes  a  great  difference  to  a 
tone  whether  it  is  attacked  abruptly  or  gradually,  with  a 
thump  or  with  a  gentle  touch.  Striking  the  string  of  a 
piano  with  a  felt  hammer  or  with  a  stick  does  not  produce 
the  same  tone.  In  a  similar  manner  a  tone  is  greatly 
affected  by  being  allowed  to  die  away  gradually  or  by 
being  stopped  suddenly.  Thus  while  the  tone  of  a 
pianoforte  string  struck  in  the  ordinary  way  is  fuller 
and  more  lasting  than  that  of  a  pizzicato  tone  on  a 
violin,  yet  the  latter  is  much  more  piercing  and  pene- 
trating. But  the  differences  of  attack  and  of  release 
are  in  no  case  more  characteristic  than  in  the  human 
voice,  where  they  are  noted  in  the  form  of  different 
letters,  as  for  instance  the  consonants  B,  D,  G,  P,  T, 
and  K. 

The  accompanying  noises,  independently  of  what  we 
have  called  the  inherent  quality,  by  which  one  tone  may  be 
distinguished  from  another,  is  illustrated'  in  wind  instru- 
ments by  the  hissing  of  the  air  striking  against  the  sharp 
edge  of  the  mouthpiece,  and  in  string  instruments  by  the 
scraping  of  the  bow.  Similar  effects  are  produced  in  the 
human  vcice  by  pronouncing  the  letters  F,  V,  S,  Z,  TH, 
R,  and  L.     Even  the  vowels  themselves  are  accompanied 


THE  LAWS  OF  SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE  VOICE.     29 

by  faint  noises  similar  to  those  produced  by  whispering  the 
same  sounds. 

Stringed  Instruments  produce  tone  by  the  vibrations 
of  the  strings.  The  number  of  these  vibrations  within 
a  given  time  depends  (1)  on  the  length,  (2)  on  the  tension, 
(3)  on  the  thickness,  and  (4)  on  the  density  of  the  strings ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  shorter,  the  tighter,  the  finer,  and  the 
lighter  the  string,  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  vibrations  in 
a  given  time  ;  in  other  words  the  higher  will,  b^  the  pitch 
of  the  tone  produced. 

Flute  or  Flue  Pipes  produce  tone  by  the  vibrations 
of  the  elastic  column  of  air  in  the  tube  caused  by  a  stream 
of  air  being  driven  against  the  sharp  edges  of  some 
opening.  The  number  of  these  vibrations  within  a  given 
time  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  length  of  the 
column,  and  is  but  slightly  modified  by  its  diameter  and 
by  the  nature  of  the  mouthpiece.  The  shorter  the  column 
the  greater  the  number  of  vibrations,  and  vice  versa.  If, 
therefore,  we  take  two  pipes,  one  half  as  long  as  the  other, 
the  short  one  will  produce  a  tone  an  octave  higher  than 
the  long  one.  We  are  all  famiUar  with  an  illustration  of 
this  by  the  pipes  of  an  organ ;  there  is  a  separate  pipe 
for  every  tone,  and  their  length  increases  on  a  regular 
scale. 

Reed  Instruments  may  have  stiff  or  flexible  reeds  or 
tongues. 

Stiff  Reeds  are  made  of  metal.  They  do  not  produce 
tone  by  any  vibrations  of  their  own,  but  by  cutting  the  air 
which  is  driven  past  them  into  puffs.  The  pitch  of  these 
tones  is  regulated  by  the  length  and  elasticity  of  the  reeds. 
A  different  reed  is  therefore  required  for  every  new  tone. 
Such  reeds  may  be  used  free,  as  in  the  harmonium,  concer- 
tina, accordion,  &c.,  or  they  may  be  used  in  connection  with 


30  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


tubes,  as  in  the  organ.  When  this  is  the  case  the  reed 
governs  the  vibrations  of  the  column  of  air.  If,  therefore, 
the  tone  is  to  derive  any  advantage  from  the  association  of 
the  reed  with  the  tube,  the  length  of  the  tube  must  be 
such  that  one  of  its  partial  tones  corresponds  with  the 
vibrations  of  the  reed. 

Flexible  Reeds  are  generally  made  of  wood  and  they 
are  always  associated  with  a  tube  of  some  kind.  They 
produce  tone  by  their  own  vibrations  which,  however,  is 
overpowered  and  governed  by  the  vibrations  of  the  column 
of  air.  The  pitch  of  these  tones  therefore  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  length  of  the  tube,  and  is  but  little  influenced  by 
the  length  and  elasticity  of  the  reed. 

Professor  Tyndall  says :  "  Perhaps  the  simplest  illustra- 


IL — A  Reed.     {From  Tyndall.) 

tion  of  the  action  of  a  reed  commanded  by  its  aerial 
column  is  furnished  by  a  common  wheaten  straw.  At 
about  an  inch  from  a  knot  I  bury  my  penknife  in  this 
straw,  s  r'  (PL  II.),  to  a  depth  of  about  one-fourth  of  the 
straw's  diameter,  and,  turning  the  blade  flat,  pass  it 
upwards  towards  the  knot,  thus  raising  a  strip  of  the  straw 
nearly  an  inch  in  length.  This  strip,  r  r\  is  to  be  our 
reed,  and  the  straw  itself  is  to  be  our  pipe.  It  is  now  eight 
inches  long.  When  blown  into,  it  emits  this  decidedly 
musical  sound.  I  now  cut  it  so  as  to  make  its  length  six 
inches  ;  the  pitch  is  higher  :  with  a  length  of  four  inches, 
the  pitch  is  higher  still.  I  make  it  two  inches,  the  sound 
is  now  very  shrill  indeed.  In  all  these  experiments  we 
had  the  same  reed,  which  was  compelled  to  accommodate 


THE  LAWS  OF, SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE  VOICE.     31 

itself  throughout   to    the    requirements    of  the   vibrating 
column  of  air."     (Op.  cit.,  p.  194.) 

The  Clarionet  is  an  instrument  of  this  kind  in  which 
the  tone  of  the  reed  is  overpowered,  and  governed  by 
the  vibrations  of  the  column  of  air;  but  the  pitch  in 
this  instance  also  depends,  to  some  extent,  upon  the 
narrowing  by  the  lips  of  the  slit  between  the  reed  and 
its  frame. 

The  Hautboy  and  the  Bassoon  are  similar  instru- 
ments, but  they  have  double  reeds  with  a  slit  between 
them  through  which  the  air  is  forced. 

In  the  Horn  and  Trumpet  the  lips  of  the  performer 
supply  the  double  reeds.  The  lips  are  but  very  slightly 
elastic,  and  therefore  cannot  produce  tone  by  their  own 
independent  vibrations ;  but  they  are  easily  set  in  motion 
by  the  pressure  of  the  vibrating  column  of  air.  In  the 
older  instruments  of  this  class  the  tones  are  limited  to  the 
prime  tone,  with  its  harmonic  upper  partials,  of  the  tube, 
and  the  particular  tone  to  be  produced  depends  upon  the 
tension  of  the  lips  and  upon  the  power  of  blast.  Modern 
horns  and  trumpets,  &c.,  are  perfected  by  the  addition  of 
keys  supplying  the  tones  which  were  formerly  wanting. 

The  Human  Voice  is  also  generally  described  as  a  reed 
instrument,  a  statement  which  requires  some  qualification. 
We  shall,  however,  be  in  a  better  position  to  enter  into 
this  question  after  the  mechanism  of  the  vocal  apparatus 
has  been  explained,  and  we  defer  until  then  a  discussion  of 
the  subject. 

Resonance  is_caused  when  a  sounding  body  communis 
cates  its  vibrations  to  another  body;  or  when,  in  other 
words,  the  second  body  is  thrown  into  co-vibrations  with 
the  first  body.  The  following  is  an  illustration  with  which 
most  persons  are  familiar.     Strike  a  tuning-fork  and  it  wilj 


32  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

produce  a  tone,  but  a  very  faint  tone  only.  Now  put  the 
vibrating  tuning-fork  with  its  handle  upon  a  table.  The 
vibrations  of  the  fork  will  be  communicated  to  the  table, 
that  is  to  say,  the  table  will  be  thrown  into  co-vibrations 
with  the  tuning-fork,  with  the  result  of  greatly  increasing 
the  sound.  The  sound  of  strings  in  the  piano,  harp, 
violin,  &c.,  is  reinforced  in  a  similar  manner,  i.e.  by  direct 
communication  of  the  vibrations  of  the  strings  to  the 
sounding-board  or  to  the  body  of  the  instrument.  In 
these  cases  the  loudness  of  the  resulting  sound  is  increased 
because  a  larger  body  of  air  is  set  vibrating. 

The  vibrations  of  a  sounding  body  may,  however,  also 
be  communicated  to  another  body  without  being  in  con- 
tact with  it  at  all.  This  may  be  distinguished  as  sympa- 
thetic resonance.  The  following  illustrations  will  make  the 
matter  clear. 

Roll  up  a  sheet  of  paper  so  as  to  form  a  tube  six  inches 
long,  and  about  one  inch  in  diameter.     Strike  an  ordinary 

C  tuning-fork    ^^  and  hold  it  close  to   one  of  the 


ends  of  the  tube.  The  tone,  which  was  at  first  scarcely 
audible,  will  now  be  heard  all  over  the  room.  We  can, 
to  some  extent,  shorten  or  lengthen  the  tube,  and  yet  get 
resonance,  but  we  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of  rein- 
forcement for  the  sound  of  our  high  C  by  a  column  of 
air  six  inches  long. 

If  we  convert  the  open  pipe  into  a  closed  one  by  putting 
one  end  of  the  tube  upon  the  table,  and  then  hold  the 
vibrating  fork  over  the  aperture,  we  find  the  resonance 
produced  by  it  very  insignificant.  But  if  we  substitute  for 
the  high  C  tuning-fork  another  one  producing  the  C  an 


octave  lower   t^— p^   we  get  again  a  very  strong  reson- 


THE  LAWS  OF  SOUND  BEARING  UPON  THE  VOICE.     33 

ance.  We  here  find  that  with  a  closed  pipe  the  best 
resonance  is  produced  by  a  tone  an  octave  lower  than 
is  necessary  for  getting  the  best  resonance  with  an  open 
pipe  of  the  same  length.  This  is  equal  to  saying  that  by 
opening  a  closed  pipe  we  raise  its  pitch  by  an  octave. 
Another  very  simple  and  i.  structive  experiment  in  the 
same  direction  is  this :  Take  a  tall  bottle  with  a  wide  neck, 
such  as  is  generally  used  for  preserving  fruit ;  strike  a  high 
C  tuning-fork,  and  hold  it  over  the  empty  bottle.  There 
will  be  no  reinforcement,  and  the  vibrating  fork  will 
produce  as  little  sound  over  the  bottle  as  away  from  it. 
Now  pour  water  into  the  bottle  gently,  and  with  as  little 
noise  as  possible,  thereby  shortening  the  air-column  inside,, 
and  you  will  find  the  sound  of  the  tuning-fork  intensified 
by  degrees,  until  at  last,  continuing  to  pour  in  water,  the 
tone  will,  at  a  certain  point,  burst  forth  quite  loudly.  If 
still  more  water  is  poured  in,  the  tone  will  decrease  again 
as  gradually  as  it  was  at  first  intensified,  until  at  last  it 
dies  away  altogether. 

In  a  similar  manner  jars  of  different  height  may  be 
operated  upon  with  tuning-forks  of  different  pitch.  Or 
the  experiment  may  be  altered  as  follows  :  Strike  a  C 
tuning-fork,  and  hold  it  over  an  ordinary  tumbler;  then 
push  a  piece  of  cardboard  over  the  glass,  reducing  its 
aperture.  The  result  will  be  a  gradual  reinforcement  of 
the  tone  of  the  tuning-fork,  until  at  a  certain  point  it  is 
heard  quite  loudly.  Push  the  cardboard  beyond  this  point 
and  the  tone  will  become  gradually  fainter,  until  it  quite 
dies  away. 

All  these  trials  show  that  there  is,  for  every  tone,  an  air 

\  column  of  a  certain  size  which  most  powerfully  reinforces 

f  that  tone. 

There  is  yet  another  illustration  of  sympathetic  resonance 

D 


34  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

which  is  very  interesting.  If  the  strings  of  two  violins  are 
tuned  exactly  alike,  and  a  string  of  one  is  bowed,  the 
corresponding  string  of  the  other  violin  will  also  begin  to 
vibrate,  though  the  two  instruments  are  not  in  contact 
with  each  other. 

"Tuning-forks  are  the  most  difficult  to  set  in  sympa- 
thetic vibration.  To  effect  this  they  must  be  fastened  on 
sounding  boxes  which  have  been  exactly  tuned  to  their 
tone.  If  we  have  two  such  forks  of  exactly  the  same 
pitch,  and  excite  one  by  a  violin  bow,  the  other  will  begin 
to  vibrate  in  sympathy,  even  if  placed  at  the  farther  end  of 
the  room,  and  it  will  continue  to  sound  when  the  first  is 
damped.  The  astonishing  nature  of  such  a  case  of  sympa- 
thetic vibration  will  appear  if  we  merely  compare  the  heavy 
and  powerful  mass  of  steel  set  in  motion,  with  the  light 
yielding  mass  of  air,*  which  produces  effect  by  such  small 
motive  power  that  it  could  not  stir  the  lightest  spring 
which  was  not  in  tune  with  the  fork.  With  such  forks, 
the  time  required  to  set  them  in  full  swing  by  sympathetic 
action  is  also  of  sensible  duration,  and  the  slightest  dis- 
agreement in  pitch  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  sensible 
diminution  in  the  sympathetic  effect.  By  sticking  a  piece 
of  wax  to  one  prong  of  the  second  fork,  sufficient  to  make 
it  vibrate  once  in  a  second  less  than  the  first — a  difference 
of  pitch  scarcely  sensible  to  the  finest  ear — the  sympathetic 
vibration  will  be  wholly  destroyed."  (Helmholtz,  op.  cit., 
P-  63.) 

*  Steel  is,  bulk  for  bulk,  about  6000  times  as  heavy  as  air. 


(    35     ) 


SPEAKING  AND  SINGING. 

j  Voice  is  sound  originated  in  the  larynx,  and  may  be 
produced  by  any  animal  possessing  that  organ. 

Speaking  is  voice  modified  in  the  cavity  of  the  mouth. 
The  medium  of  conveying  his  thoughts,  it  is  the  attribute 
of  man  alone,  raising  him  above  all  animals. 

Singing  is  a  higher  development  of  the  same  power, 
being,  in  fact,  sustained  musical  speaking. 

It  is  not  possible  to  draw  a  clear  line  between  singing 
and  speaking,  as  both  are  actions  of  the  same  organs. 
There  must  be  speech  in  song,  or  it  would  lose  all  the 
charm  attached  to  the  distinct  rendering  of  the  words. 
There  must  also  be  a  certain  amoimt  of  song  in  speech,  or 
it  would  soon  become  unbearable  by  its  dreariness  and 
monotony. 

Nevertheless,  singing  and  speaking  differ  from  each 
other,  and  are  in  some  respects  even  antagonistic.  Mr. 
Ellis  (op.  cit.,  p.  i)  distinguishes  the  following  points  : — 

1.  '^Singing  and  Speaking  differ  in  Compass. — In 
singing,  a  good  and  fine  quality  of  tone  is  sought  to  be 

^«  attained  at  pitches  varying  by  at  least  a  twelfth,  and  some- 
times two  octaves  or  even  more.  In  speaking,  an  audible 
quality  of  tone  is  desired,  but  one  which  is  not  strictly 
musical,  at  pitches  generally  within  a  fifth,  and  only 
occasionally  extending  to  an  octave." 

2.  "  Singing  is  at  Sustained,  Speaking  at  Gliding 

D    2 


36  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


Pitch. — In  singing,  a  tone  has  to  be  sustained  for  a  con- 
siderable time  at  an  invariable  pitch.  In  speaking,  not 
only  is  the  length  of  time  for  which  any  sound  is  sustained 
much  less,  sometimes  necessarily  very  short  indeed,  but  the 
pitch  at  which  it  is  delivered  is  uncertain  and  variable,  and 
constantly  rising  or  falling,  sometimes  first  rising  and  then 
falling,  or  first  falling  and  then  rising,  for  the  same  spoken 
sound." 

3.  "  Singing  requires  a  Clear,  Speaking  an  Impeded 
Passage  for  the  Breath. — In  singing,  a  good  quality  of 
musical  tone  can  only  be  attained  by  peculiar  adjustments  : 
of  the  cavities  between  the  larynx  and  the  lips,  which 
generally  imply  that  they  are  unchoked  or  unimpeded  ; 
and  by  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  larynx  itself,  which 
implies,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  is  so  choked  and  impeded 
that  the  wind  has  to  force  its  way  through  it  from  the 
lungs.  In  speaking,  the  upper  cavities  have  to  be  choked 
and  impeded  in  many  ways  more  or  less  injurious  to 
musical  qualities  of  tone,  and  sometimes  entirely  destruc- 
tive of  any  musical  tone  whatever,  allowing  mere  noise  to 
pass,  or  actually  preventing  any  sound  at  all  from  passing. 
And  the  larynx  has  occasionally  to  be  so  open  that  no 
musical  sound  whatever  can  be  produced,  except  by  a 
further  adjustment  of  the  lips  and  tongue  to  produce 
whistling,  an  effect  not  admitted  in  speech." 

4.  "Singing  has  to  be  Rapid  and  Slurred,  where 
Speaking  cannot  be  so. —  In  singing,  the  melody  often 
requires  the  notes  to  be  sung  with  great  rapidity,  and  at 
other  times  to  be  slurred  into  each  other.  In  any 
languages,  as  the  English,  where  the  vowels  are  separated 
by  numerous  consonants,  this  rapidity  is  impossible,  and 
the  slurring  becomes  equally  impossible  from^the  necessity 
of  separating  the  musical  by  unmusical  sounds." 


SPEAKING  AND  SINGING.  37 

The  English  language  is  generally  supposed  to  offer 
greater  difficulties  to  the  singer  than  either  Italian,  Portu- 
guese, Spanish,  French,  or  German. 

"  What  a  stumbling  block  English  proves  to  foreigners 
was  exemplified  by  Duprez,  who,  in  the  recitative  in 
'  William  Tell,'  used  to  say  '  My  country  and  my  face ' 
(faith)."  ('Dramatic  Singing,'  by  W.  H.  Walshe,  M.D. 
London :  Kegan  Paul,  Trench  &  Co.,  p.  77.) 

What  beauties,  on  the  other  hand,  it  possesses  with 
regard  to  speaking  may  be  best  seen  from  the  following 
—  opinion  of  Jacob  Grimm,  the  greatest  philologist  of 
modern  times.  "  The  English  language  possesses  a  power 
which  probably  never  stood  at  the  command  of  any  other 
nation.  This  singularly  happy  development  and  condition 
has  been  the  result  of  an  intimate  union  of  two  of  the 
-  noblest  languages,  the  Teutonic  and  the  Romance ;  the 
former  supplying  the  material  ground-work,  the  latter  the 
spiritual  conceptions.  In  truth,  the  English  language, 
which  by  no  mere  accident  has  produced  and  upborne  the 
greatest  and  most  predominant  poet  of  modern  times  (I 
can,  of  course,  only  mean  Shakespeare)  may  with  all  right 
be  called  a  world  language  ;  and,  like  the  English  people, 
appears  destined  hereafter  to  prevail  with  a  sway  more 
extensive  than  its  present  one,  over  all  portions  of  the 
globe.  For  in  wealth,  good  sense,  and  closeness  of 
structure,  no  other  of  the  languages  at  this  day  spoken 
deserves  to  be  compared  with  it — not  even  our  own 
German,  which  -is  torn  even  as  we  are  torn,  and  must  rid 
itself  of  its  defects  before  it  can  enter  into  the  lists  as  a 
competitor  with  English."     (James  Hunt,  op.  cit.,  p.  226.) 


38  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


^ 


THE  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE 
VOCAL  ORGAN. 

The  Human  Voice  considered  as  a  musical  instrument 
consists  of  four  parts : — 

1.  The  Chest  or  Thorax  and  the  Lungs  containing 
the  air  which  is  the  motor^  element. 

2.  The  Windpipe  or  Trachea,  in  which  the  air  is 
carried  up  and  down. 

3.  The  Voice-box  or  Larynx,  in  which  are  situated 
the  vocal  ligaments  forming  the  vibrating  element. 

4.  The  Upper  Part  of  the  Throat  or  Pharynx, 
THE  Mouth  and  the  Nasal  Passages  forming  the 
resonator. 

The  Chest  or  Thorax  is  an  air-tight  chamber  formed 
by  the  spine  at  the  back,  by  twelve  ribs  on  either  side,  by 
the  breast-bone  or  sternum  and  the  collar-bones  or  clavicles 
in  front,  by  the  root  of  the  neck  above,  and  by  the  midriff 
or  diaphragm  below.  Each  higher  rib  being  a  little 
shorter  than  the  one  below,  it  follows  that  the  shape  of  the 
chest  as  a  whole  must  be  conical.  The  chest  is,  in  other 
words,  considerably  broader  below  than  above. 

The  Ribs  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  two  lowest  on 
each  side,  which  are  called  the  floating  ribs,  attached 
behind  to  the  spine,  and  in  front  to  the  breast-bone,  just 
as  a  bucket  handle  is  fastened  to  the  bucket ;  and  the  ribs 
are  capable  of  being  raised  or  lowered  just  as  the  bucket 
handle  may  be  moved  up  and   down.     In  a  state  of  rest, 


-.V 


aI^'-' 


■■■■     .o?/ 


^■ 


III._Section  of  the  Human  Body.    \Adaptedfrom  Kiiss  and  Czermak.) 
N,  Nasal  passages  ;  H,  Hard  palate  ;  S,  Soft  palate  ;  E,  Eustachian  tube. 


40 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


however,    they    take    a    position    slanting    forwards    and 
downwards. 

The  Midriff  or  Diaphragm  {see  PL  III.)  is  a  large 
powerful  muscle  which,  as  implied  by  the  name,  serves  as 
a  partition  dividing  the  chest  from  the  abdomenj  In  a 
state  of  rest  the  midriff  has  the  shape  of  a  basin  put 
upside  down,  that  is  to  say,  it  arches  up  into  the  chest.  It 
has  a  number  of  fibres  extending  from  the  centre  of  the 
lower  surface  downwards  and  outwards  to  the  ribs,  and  we 
must  particularly  notice  two  very  strong  bundles  called 
xht  pittars  of  the  midriff  which  go  from  the  middle  of  the 


IV. — Framework  of  the  Chest. 


diaphragm  to  the  spine.  When  these  fibres  and  pillars 
contract,  the  midriff  is  not  only  considerably  flattened, 
thereby  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  chest  at  the  expense 
of  the  abdomen,  it  is  also  pulled  down  in  its  entirety,  so 
that  its  action  somewhat  resembles  that  of  a  piston  in  the 
cylinder  of  a  pump. 

But  more  :  its  outer  rim  is  attached  to  the  lower  ribs, 


THE   CHEST.  41 


and  as  these  are  moveable  the  arched-up  centre   of  the 
midriff  cannot  possibly  be  directed  downwards  without  its 
circular    edge    being    elevated,  thereby   forcing    the    ribs 
forward  and  outward.     It  is  quite  clear,  therefore,  that  the  | 
chest  is,  by  this  action  of  the  diaphragm,  enlarged  in  three  ^ 
directions,  namely,  in  height,  in  depth,  and  in  width. 

When  the  muscular  fibres  which  have  just  been  de- 
scribed relax,  the  midriff  arches  up  again  as  before,  and  it 
is  assisted  in  this  act  by  the  return  of  the  stomach  and  of 
the  intestines  to  their  original  position.  The  result  of  this 
is,  of  course,  the  reduction  of  the  chest  to  its  original 
dimensions. 

The  Muscles  of  the  Chest. — Each  pair  of  ribs  is 
united  by  two  sets  of  muscles,  the  outer  intercostals  and  the  •*«• 
inner  intercostals.  The  outer  intercostals  by  their  con- 
traction raise  the  ribs,  and  they  are  assisted  by  various 
other  muscles  connecting  the  ribs  with  parts  of  the  spine 
above  them.  If  these  muscles  relax,  the  ribs  will,  by  their 
own  weight,  resume  their  former  position,  and  in  this  they 
are  assisted  by  the  contraction  of  the  inner  intercostals 
and  of  other  muscles  connecting  the  ribs  with  that  bony 
ring  between  the  spinal  column  and  the  lower  extremities 
called  \\\t  pelvis.  By  these  agencies  the  dimensions  of  the 
cavity  of  the  chest  from  back  to  front  and  from  side  to 
side  itfe  alternately  increased  and  diminished. 

We  must  notice  in  addition  a  set  of  muscles  uniting  the 
ribs  with  the  shoulders  and  the  shoulder-blades,  enabling 
us  to  raise  and  to"  lower  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  and 
the  collar-bones  in  conjunction  with  the  shoulders.  By 
the  action  of  these  the  height  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest 
may  also  be  alternately  increased  or  diminished,  though 
only  to  a  very  limited  extent. 

The  Lungs  are  contained  in  the  chest,  which  they  fit 


42 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


exactly,  and  of  which  they  occupy  by  far  the  largest  part, 
leaving  but  a  small  portion  for  the  heart  and  blood-vessels. 
They  are  two  separate  bodies  united  only  by  means  of  the 
branches  of  the  windpipe  called  the  bronchi.      The  lungs 


V. — Chest  and  Lungs. 
The  curved  line  at  the  bottom  of  the  drawing  indicates  the  Midrift  or  Diaphragm. 

are  coneshaped,  the  pointed  part  being  above,  and  the 
broad  part  below.  They  consist  of  different  divisions 
called  lobes;  these  are  made  up  of  sub-divisions  called 
lobicleSy  and  these  again  consist  of  little  clusters  of  minute 


THE  LUNGS. 


43 


air-cells  resembling  bunches  of  grapes.  It  has  been 
calculated  that  there  are  no  less  than  six  hundred  millions 
of  these  air-cells  in  the  lungs  of  a  full-grown  man. 
Between  these  air-cells  there  are,  circulating  in  all  direc- 
tions, the  capillary  vessels  receiving  the  blood  from  the 
heart.     The  right  lung  is  larger  than  the  left,  and  it  has 


-The  Lungs,  etc.     {Adapted from  Niemeyer,) 


V,  Voice-box  or  larynx  ;  W,  W  indpipe  or  trachea  ;  R,  Right  lung  ;  L,  Left  lung. 
In  the  section  of  the  left  lung  are  indicated  the  ramifications  of  the  left  bronchus. 

three  lobes,  the  upper,  the  middle,  and  the  lower ;  the  left 
lung  has  but  two  lobes,  the  upper  and  the  lower. 

The  Pleura. — Each  lung  is  enclosed  in  a  double  bag 
called  the  pleura.  Take  a  bladder,  expel  the  air  from  it, 
and  double  it  up  by  putting  the  fist  into  it.  The  fist 
represents  the  lung,  and  the  doubled  bladder  a  part  of  the 
pleura;  both  together  will  give  a  tolerably  clear  idea  of  the 
whole  arrangement.     The  outer  bag  forms  a  lining  to  the 


44  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

walls  of  the  chest,  and  the  inner  one  serves  as  a  covering 
to  the  lung  to  which  it  closely  adheres.  The  lobes  of  the 
lungs  are  separated  from  each  other  by  infoldings  of  the 
inner  bag.  The  interior  surfaces  of  the  two  bags  which 
are  thus  in  close  contact  are  very  smooth,  and  they  are  kept 
moist  with  a  lubricating  fluid  which  enables  them  to  move 
upon  each  other  without  friction.  It  is  the  main  object  of 
the  pleurae  to  keep  the  lungs  in  position,  and  to  facilitate 
the  working  of  the  chest  and  of  the  lungs  in  respiration. 

The  Windpipe  or  Trachea  {see  PI.  YI.)  is  the  tube  by 
means  of  which  the  air  is  carried  into  and  out  of  the  lungs. 
It  descends  from  the  upper  part  of  the  throat,  and  is  kept 
open  by  from  1 8  to  20  rings  formed  of  gristle  or  cartilage. 
The  rings  are  open  behind  where  the  windpipe  comes  into 
contact  with  the  gullet  or  cesophagus,  and  the  ends  of  the 
rings  are  united  by  the  same  fibrous  membrane  which 
unites  them  in  front  and  at  the  sides.  The  windpipe  is 
capable  of  being  slightly  prolonged  or  shortened,  and 
widened  or  narrowed,  and  its  interior  is  covered  with  a 
mucous  membrane.  This  tube  may  be  readily  felt  and 
handled  through  the  skin,  and  it  will  be  understood  from 
the  above  description  why  it  is  that,  though  firm  and 
capable  of  resisting  injury,  it  possesses  at  the  same  time 
sufficient  elasticity  to  yield  to  moderate  pressure  and  to 
movements  from  all  directions. 

The  Bronchial  Passages  or  Bronchi  (PI.  VI.) — The 
windpipe  having,  in  its  downward  course,  entered  the  chest, 
it  there  divides  into  two  branches,  one  for  each  lung ;  these 
are  called  the  bronchi.  Each  bronchus  enters  the  lung, 
and  divides  shortly  afterwards  into  two  lesser  ones.  These 
again  divide  and  subdivide,  spreading  out,  like  the  roots 
and  fibres  of  a  tree,  until  at  last  their  ramifications  end  in 
the  microscopic  air-cells  of  the  lungs. 


RESPIRATION.  45 


The  Mucous  Membrane  with  which  the  windpipe  is 
lined  extends  upwards  through  the  upper  part  of  the  throat 
into  the  nasal  cavities,  and  downwards  into  the  smallest 
bronchial  tubes  in  the  lungs.  It  is  covered  with  a  multi- 
tude of  mucous  glands,  secreting  that  thin  glairy  fluid 
called  mucus.,  which  keeps  the  membrane  in  a  moist  state. 
It  is  soft,  smooth,  more  or  less  red,  and  protected  by 
a  layer  of  minute  cells.  These,  again,  are  studded  with 
innumerable,  extremely  fine,  hair-like  projections  called  the 
cilia^  all  pointing  in  an  outward  direction,  and  continually 
swaying  backwards  and  forwards,  thus  removing  out  of 
the  air-passages  any  excess  of  mucus  which  would 
otherwise  accumulate  in  them  and  obstruct  them. 

Respiration. — The  function  of  the  lungs  is  respiration, 
which  may  be  considered  from  a  chemical  and  from  a 
mechanical  point  of  view.  The  venous  blood  is  driven 
from  the  right  lobe  of  the  heart  into  the  capillary  vessels  of 
the  lungs,  which  are  separated  from  the  air-cells  by  a  skin 
so  exceedingly  fine  that  it  does  not  prevent  the  blood 
receiving  from  the  air  the  oxygen  which  it  wants  in 
exchange  for  the  carbonic  acid  which  it  wishes  to  get 
rid  of.  The  result  of  this  interchange  is  that  the  dark- 
blue  venous  blood  is  found,  on  leaving  the  capillaries, 
to  have  been  changed  into  bright- red  arterial  blood. 
This  then  passes  into  the  left  lobe  of  the  heart  whence 
it  is  pumped  up  the  main  artery  through  the  whole 
system. 

The  object  of  -respiration,  therefore,  chemically  con- 
sidered, is  to  bring  into  the  blood  the  oxygen,  without 
which  we  could  not  live,  and  to  carry  away  the  carbonic 
acid  which,  if  retained,  would  soon  poison  us.  The  im- 
portance of  this  cannot  be  overrated,  for  life  or  death 
depends  upon  it,  and  respiration  fi'om  a  mechanical  point 


46  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

of  view,  as  in  the  production  of  the  voice,  is,  comparatively 
l^peaking,  but  a  small  matter. 

In  this  section  we  have  mainly  to  deal  with  breathing 
mechanically  considered.  This  subject  is  best  studied  in 
a  pair  of  calf's  lungs,  which  may  easily  be  obtained 
in  any  butcher's  shop  under  the  name  of  lights.  The 
calf's  lungs  are  very  similar  to  those  of  man,  and  a  few 
experiments  upon  them  will  be  found  more  instructive 
than  any  descriptions  and  explanations  that  could  possibly 
be  given.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  make  these  investi- 
gations immediately  after  the  animal  has  been  killed,  and 
before  the  lungs  have  become  cold. 

We  see  that  the  calf's  lungs  are,  as  in  those  of  human 
beings,  two  separate  bodies,  united  only  by  means  of  the 
windpipe  and  its  branches.  We  also  notice  how  much 
broader  they  are  below  than  above.  This  point  ought  to 
be  carefully  verified,  for  reasons  which  will  appear  later  on. 
If  we  press  upon  the  lungs  we  find  that  they  are  elastic 
and  yielding  to  the  touch ;  also  that  they  emit  a  peculiar 
whizzing  sound.  Insert  a  tube  into  the  windpipe,  and 
blow  into  it,  when  the  lungs  will  very  considerably  increase 
in  size.  Tie  the  windpipe  up  with  a  piece  of  string,  and 
the  lungs  will  remain  in  this  inflated  condition.  Remove 
the  string,  and  the  air  previously  blown  into  the  lungs 
will  escape  again,  and  they  will  dwindle  down  to  their 
original  size.  Observe  that  only  that  air  escapes  which 
you  blew  into  the  lungs.  There  was  air  in  them  before 
you  commenced  your  experiment,  and  this  remains- in 
them.  You  may  squeeze  some  of  it  out  by  pressing  upon 
the  lungs,  but  even  after  doing  that  a  large  quantity  of  air 
will  remain  in  them. 

These  experiments  upon  the  calf's  lungs  give  us  some 
conception  of  the  nature  of  respiration  which  is  carried  on 


RESPIRATION.  47 


in  our  own  bodies  under  very  similar  circumstances.  If 
we  draw  a  breath  we  inflate  our  lungs  as  we  inflated  the 
calf's  lungs  by  blowing  into  them.  By  holding  our  breath 
we  keep  our  lungs  inflated  as  we  kept  the  calf's  lungs 
inflated  by  tying  up  the  windpipe,  and  by  letting  our 
breath  go  we  allow  our  lungs  to  dwindle  down  as  the  calf's 
lungs  dwindled  down  when  we  removed  the  string  with 
which  we  had  tied  up  the  windpipe.  As  after  this  a  large 
quantity  of  air  remains  in  the  calf's  lungs,  so  it  also  does 
in  our  own  ;  and  as  even  with  a  great  deal  of  squeezing 
and  of  pressing  we  cannot  remove  all  the  air  out  of  the 
calf's  lungs,  so  we  are  also  unable,  even  by  making  the 
greatest  eflfort,  to  eject  all  the  air  from  our  own  lungs. 

The  air  which  cannot  be  ejected  from  the  lungs  by  any 
eflfort  is  called  residual  air. 

The  additional  amount  remaining  in  the  lungs  after  an 
ordinary  expiration  is  called  stcpplemental  air. 

The  air  over  and  above  this  passing  into  and  out  of  the 
lungs  in  quiet  breathing  is  called  tidal  air. 

And  finally  the  air  which  may  be  inhaled  by  the  deepest 
possible  inspiration  is  called  complemenlary  air. 

We  may  consequently  look  upon  the  lungs  as  divided 
into  zones,  and  we  shall  find  that — 

1.  In  the  bottom  zone  the  air  is  nearly  stagnant,  and 
never  pure. 

2.  In  the  middle  zone  it  is  fairly  flowing,  and  less 
impure. 

3.  In  the  top  zone  it  is  continually  renewed,  and  nearly 
resembles  the  air  we  inhale. 

Respiration,  as  we  have  thus  seen,  consists  of  two  acts, 
inspiration  and  expiration.  Let  us  now  consider  how 
these  two  acts  are  accomplished. 

The  lungs  have  not  the  power  of  inflating  themselves ; 


48  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

they  are  quite  passive.  But  the  chest  enlarges,  and  the 
lungs  are  obliged  to  do  the  same,  because  they  are  pressed 
by  the  air  to  the  chest  walls,  and  compellqd  to  follow  their 
every  movement,  just  as  a  stone  is  held  to  a  boy's  leather 
"  sucker."  In  other  words,  when  the  chest  enlarges,  the 
air  rushes  into  the  lungs,  thereby  inflating  them,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  vacuum  which  would  other- 
wise be  created  in  the  pleural  cavity,  that  is  to  say,  between 
the  two  bags  in  which,  as  we  have  seen  before,  the  lung  is 
enclosed,  and  one  of  which  adheres  to  the  lung  and  the 
other  to  the  chest.     This  constitutes  aspiration. 

This  act  of  //aspiration  is  quickly  followed  by  the 
expulsion  of  the  air.  The  lungs  are  very  elastic,  and  they 
have  a  constant  tendency  to  return  to  their  original  form. 
As  soon  as  the  contraction  of  the  inspiratory  muscles 
ceases,  this  elasticity,  which  till  then  has  been  opposed, 
re-asserts  itself,  and  the  lungs  contract.  The  diaphragm 
and  the  chest  walls  follow  the  lungs  just  as  the  latter 
adhered  to  the  former  in  inspiration.  In  addition  to 
this  there  is  the  natural  impulse  of  the  chest  walls,  of 
the  midriff,  and  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  &c.,  to 
return  to  their  original  position.  The  air  is  by  these 
acts  expelled,  and  this  constitutes  ^Jt'piration. 

While,  then,  in  ordinary  breathing  //aspiration  is  the 
result  of  muscular  contraction,  and,  therefore,  active^ 
^^piration  is  the  result  of  the  elasticity  of  the  organs 
which  had  been  opposed  by  //aspiration,  and  consequently 
passive.  But  as  we  have  the  power  of  forced  //aspiration, 
so  we  have  also  the  power  of  forced  ^;rpiration ;  and  if  we 
make  use  of  this  power,  ^;i;piration  ceases  to  be  passive,  and 
also  becomes  the  result  of  muscular  contraction.  The 
muscles  called  into  play  in  inspiration  as  well  as  in 
expiration  have  already  been  described  on  p.  41. 


RES P IRA  TION.  49 


We  have  seen  that  the  chest  may  be  enlarged  in  three 
different  ways. 

1.  By  the  descent  of  the  midriff  or  diaphragm.  In  this 
method  the  abdomen  is  pushed  out  of  the  way  and  the 
chest  walls  are  gradually  dilated  from  below  upwards,  but 
the  shoulders  remain  unmoved.  This  method  of  chest  ex- 
pansion is  known  as  midriffs  diaphragmatic^  or  abdominal  ^ 
breathing. 

2.  By  sideways  extension  of  the  ribs.  In  this  method 
also  the  shoulders  remain  unmoved.  This  constitutes  rib 
breathing,  or  lateral  or  costal  breathing. 

3.  By  raising  the  shoulders  with  the  collar-bones,  the 
shoulder-blades,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  chest.  This  is 
collar-bone^  clavicular^  or  scapular  breathing. 

In  taking  a  full,  deep  inspiration,  midriff  and  rib  breath- 
ing take  place  almost  together  and  assist  each  other — that 
is  to  say,  the  midriff  contracts  and  flattens,  and  imme- 
diately afterwards  the  ribs  extend  sideways — with  this 
difference,  however,  that  in  men  the  action  of  the  midriff 
takes  a  larger  share  in  the  work  than  the  ribs,  while  in 
women,  on  the  contrary,  the  movement  of  the  ribs  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  midriff. 

"  By  way  of  illustrating  this  curious  difference  of  breath- 
ing in  men  and  women  the  following  anecdote,  which  has 
the  recommendation  of  being  strictly  true,  may  perhaps 
amuse  the  reader.  Some  time  ago  a  troupe  of  'Female 
Minstrels,'  calling  themselves,  I  believe,  '  The  American 
Amazons,'  made  a  tour  in  this  country.  Their  faces  were 
blackened  in  the  orthodox  fashion,  and  they  were  in  male 
attire,  wearing  tight-fitting  garments  of  a  peculiar  kind. 
Two  friends,  both  medical  men,  went  to  hear  them  (or 
perhaps  to  see  them,  I  am  not  sure  which),  when  Mr.  A. 
remarked  that  two  qf  the  performers  were  men.     Mr.  B. 

E 


50  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH, 

did  not  see  it,  even  when  the  individuals  were  pointed  out 
to  him,  and  asked  his  friend  for  the  reasons  for  his  opinion. 
'  Why,'  said  Mr.  A.,  '  I  see  it  by  their  abdominal  breath- 
ing.' And  sure  enough  Mr.  B.  now  saw  it  too,  and  there 
was  no  mistake  about  it ;  for  in  the  two  suspected  indi- 
viduals the  abdomen  was  evidently  moving  in  respiration, 
while  in  all  the  others  no  movement  was  perceptible 
excepting  that  of  their  chests."  ('  The  Mechanism  of  the 
Human  Voice,'  by  Emil  Behnke.  London :  J.  Curwen  & 
Sons,  3rd.  ed.,  p.  16.) 

For  further  elucidation  of  this  most  important  subject 
of  respiration  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapter  bearing 
on  its  hygienic  aspects,  which  commences  at  page  102,  and 
also  to  the  illustrations  XXXVI  A.,  B.,  and  C,  and  XXXVII 
A.,  B.,  and  C,  printed  at  page  1 83,  where  this  question  is 
again  considered  in  relation  to  its  direct  effect  on  voice 
cultivation.  In  the  portion  treating  of  the  ailments  of 
the  voice-user,  as  well  as  in  that  on  speech  defects,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  method  of  respiration  has  the  most 
important  bearing  on  the  general  as  well  as  on  the  pro- 
fessional well-being  of  the  class  for  whom  we  write.  It 
is  difficult,  therefore,  to  exaggerate  its  importance  on  the 
whole  teaching  of  this  treatise. 


(    51    ) 


THE   VOICE-BOX   OR   LARYNX. 

The  Voice-box  or  Larynx  is  the  central  organ  of  the 
vocal  apparatus,  and  is  situated  on  the  top  of  the  windpipe. 
Its  front  corner  or  angle  (PL  VIL,  i)  may  be  both  seen 
and  felt  in  the  throat,  and  the  general  position  of  the 
voice-box  is  thereby  at  once  indicated. 

This  position  is  not  by  any  means  a  fixed  one,  biit  the 
larynx  may,  on  the  contrary,  easily  be  pushed  on  one  side. 
It  also  moves  upwards  and  downwards  in  the  fulfilment  of 
various  functions  which  will  be  described  in  another  chapter. 

The  voice-box  is,  roughly  speaking,  a  short  tube,  three 
cornered  above  and  cylindrical  below.  It  is,  moreover, 
larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  may  therefore  be 
said  to  resemble  a  funnel,  the  upper  part  of  which  has  been 
bent  into  a  triangular  shape. 

The  larynx  is  composed  of  cartilages  or  pieces  of  gristle 
held  together  by  various  ligamentous  bands,  and  moved  by 
numerous  muscles.  The  scientific  names  of  these  pieces 
of  gristle  are  chiefly  derived  from  Greek  words  signifying 
in  some  cases  the  dififerent  objects  which  the  cartilages 
were  supposed  to  resemble,  and  in  others  their  position  or 
purpose  ;  while  again,  certain  cartilages  and  other  parts  of 
the  larynx  are  sometimes  named  after  the  anatomists  who 
first  described  them.  All  these  designations  are  more  or 
less  arbitrary,  and  they  are  calculated  to  increase  the 
difliculties  of  tiie  student  instead  of  helping  to  remove 
them.  We  have  considered  this  matter  the  more  carefully, 
as  the  present  uork  is  intended  for  readers  some  of  whom 

E    2 


52 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


may  not  have  had  a  scientific  education,  and  we  have 
accordingly  decided  upon  the  following  plan  of  nomen- 
clature, which  will  appeal  to  all  classes : — 

I.  We  shall,  as  in  the  preceding  pages,  make  use  of 
English  terms,  conveying  to  the  general  reader  some 
idea  of  the  form  or  nature  of  the  part  to  be  described. 


o^f/^^ 


VII.— Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx. 

1.  P'ront  corner  or  angle  of  the  voice-     lo.  Right  lower  horn  (inferior  cornu)  of 

box  (Adam's  apple).  the  shield. 

2.  Ring  (cricoid)  cartilage.  Ii.  Point  where  the  shield  moves  upon 

3.  4.  Upper  border  of  the  ring.  the  ring. 

5,6.  Lower  border  of  the  ring.  12.  Ring-shield  (crico-thyroid)  aperture. 

7.  Shield  (thyroid)  cartilage.  13.  Lid  (epiglottis). 

8,  9.  Upper  horns  (superior  cornua)     14.  Windpipe  (trachea). 

of  the  shield. 

2.  These  EngUsh  names,  when  used  for  the  first  time 
and  in  all  diagrams,  &c.,  will  be  followed  by  the  scientific 
terms  of  which,  in  most  cases,  they  are  translations. 

3.  We  shall  also  add  the  names  which  Professor  Ludwig 
has  given  to  the  cartilages  in  accordance  with  their  functions. 
These  designations  will,  we  believe,  greatly  assist  the  reader 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX.  S3 

in  finally  forming  a  clear  conception  of  that  marvellously 
beautiful  little  piece  of  mechanism  now  to  be  described. 

The  Framework  of  the  larynx  consists  of  five  carti- 
lages or  pieces  of  gristle. 

1.  The  Ring  [cricoid)  cartilage,  or  Foundation  cartilage. 

2.  The  Shield  [thyroid)  cartilage,  or  Tension  cartilage. 

3.  The  Lid  [epiglottis),  or  Cover  cartilage. 

4  and  5.  The  Pyramids  [arytenoid  cartilages),  or  Position 
cartilages. 

The  Ring  (cricoid)  cartilage  (PI.  VII.,  2)  is  situated 
on  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  of  which  it  forms  the  finishing 
part.  It  has  the  shape  of  a  signet  ring,  being  narrow  in 
front  and  having  behind  a  broad  plate  corresponding  to 
the  seal.  The  upper  border  (PI.  VII.,  3,  4)  rises  very 
considerably  towards  the  back,  where  the  ring  is  about 
four  times  as  high  as  in  front.  The  lower  border  (PI.  VII., 
5,  6)  runs  about  parallel  with  the  rings  of  the  windpipe, 
that  is  to  say,  its  general  direction  is  horizontal ;  but  it  is 
often  united  with  the  top  ring  of  the  windpipe  by  means 
of  extensions  of  various  sizes  which  give  it  a  more  or  less 
irregular  appearance.  In  Plate  VII.  the  ring  cartilage  is 
partly  hidden,  but  it  will  be  shown  again  in  another 
illustration,  and  we  shall  then  see  it  in  its  entirety.  The 
ring  forms  the  brasis  of  the  larynx,  because  the  whole  of 
that  structure  is,  as  it  were,  built  upon  it.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  it  is  also  called  t\\t  foundation  cartilage. 

The  Shield  (^thyroid)  cartilage  (PL  VII.,  7)  is  so  called 
because  it  serves  as  a  shield- or  protection  to  the  more 
delicate  parts  of  the  vocal  apparatus  which,  as  we  shall 
find  later  on,  are  concealed  by  it.  It  consists  of  two 
symmetrical  plates  or  "wings,"  united  in  front  by  means 
of  a  narrow  centre-piece  at  a  more  or  less  acute  angle, 
which  forms  the  prominence  referred  to  just  now  as  that 


54 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


corner  of  the  triangular  funnel  (PI.  VII.,  i)  which  may  be 
both  seen  and  felt  in  the  throat,  and  which  is  commonly 
called  the  "  Adam's  apple."  This  name  has  been  given  to 
it  because  in  the  opinion  of  the  superstitious  anatomists  of 
the  dark  ages  the  prominence  was  caused  by  the  sticking 
in  the  throat  of  the  apple  ^  from  the  forbidden  tree  which 
Adam  had  eaten.  ^ /^_^'  d^^^oJ^  ^  -'A^  ^ 


■) 


f^J  • 


6' 


VIII. — Front  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx. 


I,  2.  Upper  horns  of  the  shield. 
3,  4.  Lower  horns  of  the  shield. 

5.  Tongue  (hyoid)  bone. 

6,  7.  Horns  of  the  tongue  bone. 
8,  9,  Bands   uniting    the   shield 

the  tongue  bone. 


ith 


10,  II.  Lid. 

12,  13.  Plates  of  the  shield. 

14.  Ring. 

15.  Elastic  band  uniting  the  shield  \vi 

the  ring. 

16.  Windpipe. 


The  plates  or  wings  of  the  shield  have  each  at  the  back 
two  horns — the  upper  and  the  lower.  With  the  upper 
horns  (PI.  VIII.,  i,  2)  the  shield  cartilage  is  attached  by 
means  of  bands  (PI.  VIII.,  8,  9)  to  the  corresponding 
projections  (PI.  VIII.,  6,  7)  of  the  tongue  bone  (PI.  VIII., 
5).     With  the  lower  horns  (PI.  VIII.,  3,  4)  it  moves  upon 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX.  55 

the  ring  cartilage  as  upon  a  pair  of  hinges.  The  preceding 
diagram  (PL  VII.,  11),  although  it  shows  only  one  of  the 
lower  horns,  will  make  this  clearer  still. 

If  the  shield  cartilage  (PI.  VII.,  7)  were  gradually  drawn 
downward  and  forward,  the  distance  between  the  front  of  the 
shield  (PI.  VII.,  i)  and  the  highest  part  of  the  back  of  the 
ring  (PI.  VII.,  4)  would  be  increased,  and  the  space  which  we 
now  see  between  the  shield  and  the  ring  (PI.  VII.,  1 2)  would 
get  smaller  and  smaller,  until  at  last  it  quite  disappeared. 

Authorities  differ  as  to  whether  the  shield  moves  upon 
the  ring,  or  the  ring  upon  the  shield,  and  some  even 
maintain  that  both  are  moved  at  the  same  time.  But  it  is 
sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  know  that  a  movement  as 
upon  a  hinge  takes  place  whereby,  as  just  explained,  the 
distance  between  the  front  of  the  shield  and  the  highest 
part  at  the  back  of  the  ring  is  increased.  Supposing  for 
the  moment  the  ring  cartilage  to  remain  stationary,  and 
the  shield  cartilage  to  be  moved  upon  it  downward  and 
forward,  the  tension  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  as  will  be  seen 
presently,  would  chiefly  depend  upon  the  lever-like  action 
of  the  shield,  and  this  cartilage  therefore  receives  the 
additional  appellation  of  the  tension  cartilage. 

The  Lid  {epiglottis)  or  cover  cartilage.  Reference  to 
the  section  of  the  human  body  (PI.  III.,  p.  39)  will  show  that 
the  food  we  take  has  to  pass  over  the  voice-box  and  then 
through  the  gullet  {pesophagtis)  into  the  stomach.  But 
the  larynx  is  open  at  the  top,  so  that  a  contrivance  is 
required  which  will  close  it  during  the  act  of  swallowing. 
This  is  done  by  the  lid,  an  elastic  cartilage  which  allows 
itself  to  be  drawn  over  the  voice-box,  thereby  protecting 
it  against  any  intruding  foreign  substances.  It  is  a  thin, 
pliable,  leaf-shaped  cartilage  (PI.  VIII.,  10),  and  is  attached 
with  its  tapering  basis  (PI.  VIII.,  11)  to  the  inner  side  of 


56  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

the   shield  just   below  the   point  where   the  two  plates  or 
wings  are  united. 

The  epiglottis,  therefore,  must  not  be  thought  of  as  a 
flat  lid  such  as  that  of  a  box,  but  as  a  soft  substance 
closing  the  aperture  of  the  larynx  with  its  overlapping 
edges  and  its  interior  cushion-like  projection.  Owing  to 
these  peculiarities  it  is  also  spoken  of  as  the  cover  cartilage, 
which  is  a  very  appropriate  name  for  it. 

It  sometimes  happens,  especially  if  we  are  laughing  or 
talking  while  taking  our  meals,  that  the  lid  does  not 
exactly  close  the  aperture  of  the  voice-box,  thereby  allow- 
ing a  particle  of  food  to  enter  it.  When  such  a  thing 
happens  we  say  the  food  has  "  gone  the  wrong  way,"  and 
there  is  then  no  peace  until  the  intruder  has  been  got  rid 
of,  generally  by  a  violent  fit  of  coughing.  The  result"  of  a 
foreign  body  entering  the  larynx  is  sometimes  a  very 
serious  matter,  and  there  are  cases  on  record  where  small 
objects  as  a  coffee-bean  or  a  cherry-stone  lodged  in  the 
voice-box  have  rapidly  caused  death. 

The  lid  is,  however,  not  the  only  means  of  protection 
which  the  larynx  possesses ;  there  are  some  parts  im- 
mediately below  it  which  can  be  pressed  together,  thereby 
helping  to  prevent  anything  from  getting  into  the  voice- 
box.  Persons  have  been  known  even  to  have  had  no  lid 
from  birth,  or  to  have  lost  it  by  disease,  and  yet  they  never 
experienced  any  difficulty  in  swallowing.  But  "  exceptions 
prove  the  rule,"  and,  in  spite  of  a  few  cases  of  this  descrip- 
tion, the  fact  remains  that'  the  lid  is  obviously  the  first 
and  most  natural  protector  of  the  voice-box. 

We  have  thus  far  become  acquainted  with  three 
cartilages  out  of  the  fiYt,  Let  us  now  remove  one  plate 
of  the  shield  as  though  cutting  it  off  with  a  knife  (PI.  IX.), 
in  order  that  we   may  look  inside  and  see  the  remaining 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX. 


57 


two   cartilages  which    have    hitherto    been    hidden    by    it. 
These  are  : —        ^ 

The  Pyramids  (^r)//^;^^*^  cartilages),  or  position  carti- 
lages. When  taken  together  they  are  supposed  to  resemble 
a  "  pitcher,"  though  it  requires  a  very  fanciful  imagination 
to  recognise  the   form  ;    it  is,  at  all  events,  in  accordance 


IX. — Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  showing  the  Interior  of 
IT,  the  Right  Plate  of  the  Shield  being  removed. 


I,  2.  Pyramids  (arytenoid  cartilages). 

3.  3.  Vocal  processes  of  the  pyramids. 

4.  Muscular     process    of     the     right 

pyramid. 

5.  Upper  border  of  the  ring. 


6>  3»  3-  Vocal  ligaments. 

7.  Place  of  attachment  for  the  shield. 

8.  Left  plate  of  the  shield. 

9.  Left  upper  horn  of  the  shield. 
10.  Ring. 


II.  Windpipe. 

with  this  real  or  imaginary  shape  that  the  Greek  name 
arytenoid  cartilages  'was  bestoVved  upon  them.  They  are 
really  two  triangular  little  bodies,  each  broad  at  the  base 
and  tapering  up  towards  the  top.  They  are  consequently 
also  called  the  pyramids.  Of  the  ^\t  cartilages  forming 
the  framework  of  the  larynx,  the  two  pyramids  un- 
doubtedly play  the  most  important  part,  and  it  is  unfortu- 


58  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

nate,  therefore,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  give  a  clear 
idea  of  them  without  the  aid  of  a  working  model  such  as 
we  use  in  our  lectures,  by  means  of  which  their  movements 
can  be  imitated. 

The  shape  of  the  pyramids  is  shown  very  plainly  on  our 
drawing  (PI.  IX.,  i,  2).  Their  bases  are  three-cornered, 
and  shghtly  hollowed  out,  so  as  to  fit  easily  upon  the  upper 
rim  of  the  ring.  Each  basis  points  one  corner  forwards 
(PL  IX.,  3,  3),  and  one  sideways  (PL  IX.,  4).  Of  the 
latter  we  can  in  our  drawing,  of  course,  only  see  the  corner 
pointing  to  the  right.  The  two  corners  pointing  forwards 
are  called  the  vocal  processes,  and  those  pointing  outwards 
are  called  the  muscular  processes. 

The  sides  of  the  pyramids  correspond  with  the  outlines 
of  their  bases ;  each  pyramid  has,  therefore,  one  surface  at 
the  back,  a  second  at  the  inner,  and  a  third  at  the  outer 
side.  The  inner  surfaces  are,  in  fact,  opposite  to  and 
parallel  with  each  other.  This  is,  however,  only  the  case 
while  the  pyramids  are  in  the  position  they  occupy  in 
diagram  IX.,  and  they  are  capable  of  executing  a  variety 
of  movements  with  surprising  freedom  and  rapidity.  Their 
inner  sides  may  be  made  to  run  parallel  or  to  diverge.  In 
addition  to  this  they  can  be  drawn  away  from  each  other, 
or  towards  each  other,  so  that  their  summits  may  either  be 
widely  separated  or  brought  close  together.  We  shall  see 
very  shortly  that  the  shape  and  the  width  of  the  chink 
of  the  glottis,  and  also  to  some  extent  the  tension  of 
the  vocal  ligaments,  depeild  largely  upon  the  position 
of  the  pyramids.  No  better  name  could  therefore  have 
been  chosen  for  these  little  bodies  than  that  of  position 
cartilages. 

The  Vocal  Ligaments  (PL  IX.,  3,  2^-^)  are  two  ledges 
of  elastic  tissue,  covered  with  a  very  delicate  membrane. 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX.  59 

Each  of  them  is  connected  on  one  side  along  its  whole 
length  with  the  shield  cartilage.  The  vocal  ligaments  are 
attached  by  their  hinder  ends  to  those  little  forward 
pointing  projections  of  the  pyramids  which  are  called  the 
vocal  processes  (PL  IX.,  3,  3),  and  by  their  front  ends  to 
the  centre  of  the  shield  (PL  IX.,  6),  where  the  two  plates 
meet  under  a  more  or  less  acute  angle. 

The  vocal  ligaments  are  generally  called  the  vocal  cords^ 
but  this  term  is  misleading,  as  it  implies  strings  like  those, 
for  instance,  of  the  violin,  which  are  attached  only  at  either 
end,  and  are  free  at  every  other  point.  This,  as  we  have 
just  seen,  is  not  the  case,  the  "  cords "  being  free  only  along 
their  inner  edges.  The  left  vocal  ligament  in  our  next  v' 
drawing  (PL  X.,  i,  2,  3,  4)  shows  this  very  distinctly,  and 
it  forms,  together  with  a  muscle  constituting  a  part  of  it,  a 
triangular  ledge  attached  with  its  broad  basis  to  the  shield'--^ 
cartilage.  The  name  "  vocal  bands,"  which  German 
physiologists  have  substituted  for  "  vocal  cords,"  does  not 
mend  the  matter,  as  it  is  open  to  exactly  the  same  objec- 
tions. The  term  "  vocal  lips,"  also  used  by  some  writers, 
conveys  an  equally  wrong  idea  of  these  parts,  and  as  there 
is  no  name  directly  descriptive  of  the  thing  to  be  designated 
we  prefer  the  word  "  hgament,"  which  has  at  least  the 
negative  advantage  of  not  conjuring  up  a  false  image. 
We  shall,  consequently,  in  these  pages  always  speak  of  the 
tone-producing  element  as  the  "  vocal  ligaments." 

The  vocal  ligaments  having  met  are  struck  by  the  air 
blown  against  them,  from  belaw,  and  being  elastic  they 
yield,  allowing  themselves  to  be  forced  upwards.  A  little 
air  is  thereby  set  free,  and  the  pressure  from  below  dimin- 
ished, in  consequence  of  which  the  vocal  ligaments  resume 
their  former  position,  and  even  move  a  little  more  down- 
wards.    The  r£newed  pressure  of  the  air  once  more  over- 


y 


6o  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

comes  the  resistance  of  the  vocal  Hgaments,  which  again 
recede  as  soon  as  another  escape  of  air  has  taken 
place,  and  this  process  is  repeated  in  rapid  and  regular 
succession. 

We  have  here  two  sets  of  vibrations — primary  and 
secondary ;  the  primary  vibrations  being  those  of  the 
vocal  ligaments,  and  the  secondary  vibrations  being  those 


X. — Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  showing  the  Interior  of 

THE  Left  Half. 

I,  2,  3,  4.    Left   vocal   ligament    and  6,  7.  Ring. 

shield-pyramid      muscle      (ihyro-  •    5,  7.  Side  ring-pyramid  muscle  (lateral 

arytenoideus).  crico-arytenoideus). 

5.  Left  pyramid. 

of  the  column  of  air  passing  between  the  vocal  ligaments. 
The  result  of  these  vibrations  is  vocal  tone.  The  tone  so 
produced  does  not,  as  will  be  more  fully  explained  in 
another  place,  constitute  the  human  voice  in  its  entirety, 
but  merely  the  original  sound  of  it.  All  authorities  are, 
however,  now  agreed  that  this  original  sound  is  the  result 
of  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal  ligaments. 

Quotations  in  support  of  the  above  statement  might  be 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX.  6i 

given  to  any  extent,  but  the  following  one  from  Professor 
Marshall's  '  Outlines  of  Physiology/  which  is  conclusive, 
may  suffice  :  "  Experiments  on  living  animals  show  that 
the  vocal  ligaments  are  alone  the  essential  organs  for  the 
production  of  voice,  for  so  long  as  these  remain  untouched, 
although  all  the  other  parts  in  the  interior  of  the  larynx 
be  destroyed,  the  animal  is  able  to  emit  vocal  sounds. 
The  existence  of  an  opening  in  the  larynx  of  a  living- 
animal  or  of  man,  above  the  glottis,"^  in  no  way  prevents 
the  formation  of  vocal  sound;  such  an  opening,  if 
situated  in  the  trachea,  causes  total  loss  of  voice,  but  by 
simply  closing  it  vocal  sounds  can  again  be  produced. 
Such  openings  in  man  are  met  with  either  as  the  re- 
sults of  accidents,  of  suicidal  attempts,  or  of  operations 
performed  on  the  larynx  or  trachea  for  the  relief  of 
disease." 

The  vocal  ligaments  in  the  adult  male  are,  in  a  state  of 
rest,  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  and  in  the 
female  about  half  an  inch.  They  are,  as  pointed  out 
before,  attached  in  front  to  the  shield  (PI.  IX.,  6)  and 
behind  to  the  pyramids  (PL  IX.,  3,  3).  Let  it  now  be 
borne  in  mind  (i)  that  the  pyramids  in  their  turn  are 
fastened  to  the  upper  border  of  the  ring,  and  (2)  that  by 
drawing  the  shield  downward  and  forward  upon  the  ring, 
or  by  in  any  other  way  approximating  these  two  cartilages 
in  front  (see  p.  ^^\  the  distance  between  the  upper 
border  of  the  ring  (PI.  IX.,  5)  and  the  front  of  the  shield 
(PI.  IX.,  6)  is  increased,  and  it  will  be  easily  seen  that  either 
of  these  movements  must,  of  necessity,  have  the  effect  of 
stretching  the  vocal  ligaments,  thereby  raising  the  pitch  of 
the  voice. 

The  drawing  of  the  shield  downward  and  forward  upon 

*  Glottis  meai:is  the  vibrating  element  of  the  voice-box. 


62  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

the  ring  is  brought  about  by  a  pair  of  muscles  ascending 
on  either  side,  in  the  shape  of  a  fan,  from  the  ring  to  the 
shield  (PL  XL,  i,  2,  3).  These  muscles  are  called  the 
"  ring-shield  muscles,"  or  crico-thyroidei.  In  opposition  to 
them  there  is  another  pair  inside  the  shield,  running 
parallel  with  the  vocal  ligaments  of  which,  indeed,  they  may 
be  said  to  form  the  most  important  part  (PL  X.,  i,  2,  3,  4). 


XL— Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  showing  one  of  the 
External  Muscles. 

I,  2,  3.  Ring-shield     muscle      (crico-  5.  Shield. 

thyroideus).  6,  7.  Upper  horns  of  the  shield. 

4.  Right  lower  horn  of  the  shield.  8.  Lid. 

9.  Windpipe. 

They  are  attached,  like  the  Vocal  ligarhents,  in  front  to  the 
shield  cartilage,  and  behind  to  the  pyramids,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  they  are  called  the  "  shield-pyramid 
muscles  "  or  thyro-arytenoidei.  It  is  one  of  their  functions 
to  counteract  the  ring-shield  muscles,  and,  having  over- 
come their  resistance,  to  pull  the  shield  cartilage  up  again, 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX.  63 

thereby,  of  course,  relaxing  the  vocal  ligaments,  and 
lowering  the  pitch  of  the  voice.  The  ring-shield  muscles, 
therefore  (PI.  XL,  i,  2,  3),  stretch  the  vocal  ligaments,  and 
the  shield-pyramid  muscles  (PL  X.,  i,  2,  3,  4)  relax  them. 

But  the  relaxing  of  the  vocal  ligaments  is  not  the  only 
function  of  the  shield-pyramid  muscles.  Their  action  is 
indeed  so  exceedingly  complicated  as  to  make  a  clear 
description  of  it  almost  impossible.  There  is,  probably, 
comparatively  speaking,  no  muscle  in  the  human  body 
with  so  many  varied  points  of  origin  and  insertion  of  its 
fibres  ;  these  fibres  going  in  all  directions,  and  enabling 
the  muscles  to  alter  their  tension,  density,  elasticity,  and 
shape.  It  would  be  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  this  manual 
to  enter  into  minute  details  of  their  structure,  nor  do  we 
think  we  should  make  matters  at  all  more  comprehensible 
by  following  the  example  of  some  authors  who  divide  these 
muscles  in  two  bundles,  and  speak  of  them  as  the  ^jtrternal 
and  the  //eternal  shield-pyramid  muscles.  This  distinction 
is  anatomically  difficult,  and  would  in  the  end  serve  to 
puzzle  and  to  confuse  the  reader  instead  of  enlightening 
him. 

Most  of  the  fibres  run  parallel  with  the  vocal  ligaments, 
taking  the  same  somewhat  curved  line  (PL  X.,  1,2,  3,  4) ; 
many  run  right  up  into  the  pocket  ligaments,  and  the 
rest  run  in  almost  every  other  direction,  the  whole  being 
so  entangled  as  to  make  it  a  hopeless  task  to  classify 
them.  The  action  of  the  shield-pyramid  muscles  is 
fourfold : —  ^  • 

1.  They  relax  the  vocal  ligaments. 

2.  They  twist  the  pyramids  by  pulling  at  the  muscular 
processes,  thereby  approximating  the  vocal  processes. 

3.  They  press  towards  the  interior,  thereby  bringing 
larger  portions  of   the  vocal   ligaments    in    contact   with 


64  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

each  other,  thus  reducing  the  length  of  the  vocal  chink  ; 
and, 

4.  Their  outer  vertical  fibres,  by  contracting,  diminish 
the  diameter  of  the  inner  portion  of  the  shield-pyramid 
muscles  and  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  making  them  flatter 
and  thinner. 

That  the  last  described  action  is  not,  as  might  perhaps 
be  imagined,  merely  a  matter  of  speculation  will  be  proved 
in  another  chapter,  and  it  will  then  be  seen  that  this  action 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  connection  with  the  forma- 
tion of  one  of  the  so-called  registers  of  the  voice.  In  the 
meantime  it  will  be  observed  that  while  in  some  ways  it  is 
the  function  of  the  shield-pyramid  muscles  to  lower  the. 
pitch  of  the  voice,  it  is  also  their  function  under  other 
conditions  to  raise  the  pitch. 

In  accc>-rdance  with  the  structure  just  explained  the 
shield-pyramid  muscles  have,  in  these  later  days,  been  called 
the  "  sphincter*  muscle "  of  the  glottis.  They  have  also 
been  called  the  "  vocal  muscles,"  since  they  play  so 
important  a  part  in  the  formation  of  all  vocal  tone  that  a 
paralysis  of  them  causes  total  loss  of  voice. 

These  two  pairs  of  muscles,  then,  namely  the  ring-shield 
muscles  (PI.  XI.,  i,  2,  3)  and  the  shield-pyramid  muscles 
(PI.  X.,  I,  2,  3,  4),  by  stretching,  slackening,  and  compress- 
ing the  vocal  ligaments,  mainly  govern  the  pitch  of  the 
tones  produced  by  their  vibrations.  The  ring-shield 
muscles  receive  some  assistance  in  stretching  the  vocal 
ligaments  from  another  quarter,  of  which  we  shall  speak 
later  on. 

We  have  now  had  a  view  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  and 
we  have  seen  by  what  means  their  tension  is  altered.     As, 

*  sphincter  is  an  anatomical  term  applied  to  circular  muscles  which 
constrict  or  close  certain  natural  orifices. 


THE   VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX. 


65 


however,  in  a  state  of  repose  the  Uganients  diverge  behind, 
they  must  be  brought  parallel  to  each  other  before  they 
are  ready  for  the  production  of  sound.  In  order  to 
explain  how  this  is  done  let  us  imagine  that  we  have  cut 
off  that  part  of  the  pyramids  which  is  standing  out  above 
the  vocal  ligaments  (PL  IX.,  p.  57),  and  let  us  now  have  a 
look  at  these  parts  from  above.  You  see  the  ligaments 
(PI.  XII.,  A,  I,  2),  a  section  of  the  pyramids  (PI.  XII.,  A,  3, 
4),  and  uniting  these  an  elastic  band  (Pi.  XII.,  A,  5).  These 
parts  are  commonly  called  the  "  glottis,"  and  anatomists- 
distinguish  a  ligamentous  glottis  formed  by  the  vocal  liga- 


XII.— A,  Glottis  in 
Repose. 


B,  Glottis  in  deep 
Breathing. 


C,  Glottis  in  the 
Production  of  Tone. 


I,  2.  Vocal  ligaments.  5    Elastic  band. 

3,  4.  Section  of  the  pyramids.  6,  7.  Muscular  processes. 

8,  9.  Vocal  processes. 

ments,  and  a  cartilaginous  glottis  formed  by  the  pyramids. 
The  term  glottis  really  signifies  the  "  tongues "  or 
"  tonguelets  "  (lingulce  laryngis)  of  the  larynx,  and  as  the 
pyramids  do  not,  by  any  vibrations  of  their  own,  take  a 
part  in  the  production  of  tone,  the  appellation  belongs, 
strictly  speaking,  to  the  vocal  ligaments  alone.  Un- 
fortunately matters  are  still  further  complicated  by  the 
additional  use  of  the  name  glottis  for  the  chink  between 
the  ligaments,  and  this  leads  to  unnecessary  difficulties  and 
incongruities.  Medical  men  speak  of  "spasms  of  the 
glottis,"  and  singing  masters  of  the  "  shock  of  the  glottis," 

F 


66 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


which  terms  are  quite  meaningless  when  apphed  to  a 
space.  The  chink  just  spoken  of  is  also  called  in  physio- 
logical works  the  "  aperture  of  the  glottis "  or  "  rima 
glottidis,"  and  there  appears  to  be  no  reason  why  such  an 
appellation  should  not  be  exclusively  used  for  it,  reserving 
the  term  glottis  for  the  vocal  ligaments. 

Here,  as  in  all  other  cases,  it  is  most  desirable  to  have  a 
clear  definition  of  terms,  and  we  shall  therefore  use  the 


XIII.— View  of  a  Section  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  from  above. 


I,  2.  Muscular  processes  of  the  pyra- 
mid cartilages. 

3,  3.  Ring  cartilage. 

4,1  &  5,2.  Back  ring-pyramid  mus- 
cles (Posterior  crico-arytenoidei). 

6,  7.  Vocal  processes  of  the  pyramid 
cartilages. 

6,11  &  7,12.  Vocal  ligaments. 

8.  Pyramid  muscle  (arytenoideus  trans- 
versus). 


9  &  10.  Elsberg's  *'  vocal  nodules." 
II  &  12.  Sesamoid  cartilages. 
13,  14.  Shield  cartilage. 
15  &  16.    Side    ring-pyramid    muscles 

(lateral  crico-arytenoidei). 
17  &  18.  Shield-pyramid  muscles  (thyro- 

arytenoidei). 
19  &  20.  Bands  by  means  of  which  the 

pyramids    are    attached    to    the 

ring. 


word  "glottis"  only  to  designate  the  vibrating  element 
of  the  larynx,  while  distinguishing  the  space  enclosed  by 
it  as  the  "  chink  of  the  glottis,"  when  referring  to  variations 
of  its  shape  in  production  of  tone,  or  the  "vocal  chink" 
when  alluded  to  generally. 

On  Plate  XIII.  are  seen  all  parts  in  a  state  of  rest. 
This  illustration,  which  has  given  us  more  trouble  to 
perfect  than  any  other,  should  be  very  carefully  studied 
by  the  reader,  as  it  gives  a  very  complete  view  of  the 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX.  67 

dissected  larynx  seen  from  above,  and  if  thoroughly  com- 
prehended will  greatly  aid  interpretation  of  the  others.  To 
the  mus:cular  processes  of  the  pyramids  (PL  XIII.,  i  and  2) 
a  pair  of  muscles  is  attached,  the  bases  of  which  are  fixed 
upon  the  back  of  the  ring  cartilage  below  (PI.  XIII.,4  and 
5).  The  action  of  these  "back  ring-pyramid  muscles,"  or 
posterior  crico-arytenoidei  (PI.  XIII.,  4,  i  and  ^^  1)^  is  to 
contract  as  soon  as  we  take  breath,  thereby  drawing 
together  the  pyramids  behind  2^\^  separating  them  in  front,, 
at  the  same  time  stretching  the  elastic  band  behind.  By 
this  movement  the  chink  of  the  glottis  is  thrown  wide 
open  into  the  shape  depicted  on  PL  ^11.  B.  During 
expiration  the  back  ring-pyramid  muscles  relax,  the  elastic 
band  contracts,  and  the  vocal  chink  resumes  the  shape  as 
on  PL  XII.  A.  These  movements  go  on  from  the  begin- 
ning of  our  lives  to  the  end,  whether  we  are  asleep  or 
awake,  with  more  or  less  vigour,  according  as  we  take  a 
slight  or  a  deep  inspiration.  The  back  ring-pyramid 
muscles  (PL  XIII.,  4,  i  and  5,  2)  have  consequently  the  all- 
important  function  of  keeping  open  the  gate  through 
which  the  air  we  breathe  enters  the  lungs.  They  have, 
therefore,  been  poetically  called  the  "  guardians  of  the 
portal  of  life."  By  their  action  of  pulling  the  pyramids 
backwards,  they  also  assist  the  ring-shield  muscles  (PL  XI., 
I,  2,  3)  in  stretching  the  vocal  ligaments. 

In  opposition  to  these  "  opening  muscles "  there  is 
another  pair  rising  from  the  side  borders  of  the  ring 
(PL  XIII.  3,  3),  which  are  fastened  to  the  front  part  of  the 
muscular  processes  of  the  pyramids  (PL  XIII.,  i  and  2), 
serving  to  draw  together  the  vocal  processes  (PL  XIII.,  6 
and  7)  to  which  the  vocal  ligaments  are  attached,  and 
which  are  thereby  brought  parallel  with  each  other. 

These  "side  ring-pyramid    muscles"   or    lateral  crico- 

p  2 


68 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


arytenoidei  (PL  XIII.,  15  and  16;  see  also  PI.  X.,  5,  7,  p. 
60)  are  assisted  by  a  single  muscle  uniting  the  pyramids  be- 
hind the  elastic  band  which  we  have  already  noticed.  This 
muscle  we  will  call  the  "  pyramid  muscle  "  or  arytenoideus 
(PI.  XIII.,  8).  By  the  united  action  of  the  muscles  which 
have  just  been  described,  and  which  may  be  termed  the 
"  closing  muscles,"  the  vocal  chink  is  thrown  in  the  shape 
shown  on  PI.  XII.  C,  and  the  vocal  ligaments  are  now  in 
a  proper  position  for  the  production  of  tone. 

Before  proceeding  farther  it  will  be  well  if  we  once  more 
glance  at  the  muscles  with  which  we  have  become  ac- 
quainted, so  that  we  may  be  quite  sure  about  their 
functions. 

MUSCLES. 

I.  GOVERNING  THE  SHAPE  OF  THE  VOCAL  CHINK. 


The  back  ring-pyramid 
MUSCLES  or  posterior  crico- 
arytenoidei. 

The  side  ring-pyramid 
MUSCLES  or  lateral  crico-aryte- 
noidei^  and  the  pyramid  mus- 
cle or  arytenoideus^  assisted 
by  the  shield-pyramid  mus- 
cles or  thyro-arytenoidei. 


Opening  the  vocal  chink. 
Closing  the  vocal  chink. 


II.  governing  the  pitch  of  the  voice. 

The  ring-shield  muscles 
or  crico'thyroidei,  assisted  by  the 

back    RING-PYRAMID     MUSCLES 

or  posterior  crico-arytenoidei. 

The   SHIELD-PYRAMID    MUS- 
CLES or  thy ro' arytenoidei. 


Stretching  the  vocal  liga- 
ments. 

Slackening  or    compress- 
ing the  vocal  ligaments, 


THE   VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX. 


69 


"^'.'he  Pocket  Ligaments  ox  false  vocal  cords  are  a  pair 
of  norizontal  projections  running  above  and  parallel  with 
the  vocal  ligaments.  In  order  to  get  a  clear  conception  of 
this  as  well  as  the  remaining  parts  of  the  voice-box,  some 
of  which  are   very   minute,  it  will  be  necessary  to  study 


XIV.— Side  View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  showing  the  Lepf 
Pocket  and  Mucous  Folds. 


1,2.  Left  vocal  ligament. 

3.  Elevation  indicating  the  left  buffer 
cartilage  (cartilage  of  Santorini), 

4,5,  2,1.  Entrance  to  the  left  pocket. 

4,5.  Left  pocket  ligament. 

6.  Elevation  indicating  the  left  carti- 
lage of  Wrisberg  with  the  prop 


cartilage      (cuneiform     cartilage) 
running  down  to  4. 

7.  Mucous   fold    (ary-epiglottic)    con- 

necting the  pyramid  cartilage  with 
the  lid. 

8.  Pyramid  muscle. 


them  in  detail.  Let  us  therefore  look  at  the  annexed 
drawing,  showing  the  interior  of  the  left  half  of  the  larynx, 
which  we  now  see,  for  the  first  time,  covered  with  mucous 
membrane,  that  is  to  say,  in  its  natural  state. 

We  recognise  the  vocal  ligament  (PL  XIV.,   i,  2),  and 
we  see  its  insertion  in  the  shield  cartilage  (PL  XIV.,  2),  but 


70  .  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

the  pyramid  for  which  we  look  on  the  left  of  the  draw,  ng, 
and  to  which,  as  we  know,  the  other  end  of  the  vocal 
ligament  is  attached,  is  hidden  from  our  view  though  we 
can  just  trace  its  curved  outline  slanting  upward  and  back- 
ward (PL  XIV.,  I,  3). 

Above  the  vocal  ligament  we  see  another  horizontal  pro- 
jection (PL  XIV.,  4,  5),  which,  like  the  vocal  ligament,  is 
attached  in  front  (on  the  right  of  the  drawing)  to  the 
shield  cartilage,  and  behind  (on  the  left  of  the  drawing)  to 
the  pyramid.  It  must  be  observ^ed,  however,  as  a  matter 
of  some  practical  importance,  that  while  the  two  points  of 
insertion  in  front  (PL  XIV.,  i  and  5)  are  vertically  in  a 
straight  line,  or,  in  other  words,  one  exactly  above  the 
other,  the  two  points  of  insertion  behind  (PI.  XIV.,  i  and 
4)  are  not  so  placed,  No.  4  being  inserted  more  outwardly 
than  No.  i.  Let  it  be  noticed  also  that  the  upper  pro- 
jection (PL  XIV.,  4,  5)  does  not  form  a  straight  hne,  but  a 
curve,  resembhng  that  of  the  lid  of  the  open  eye.  This  < 
curved,  horizontal  projection,  the  position  of  which  has  ^ 
thus  been  indicated,  is  the  left  pocket  ligament. 

The  Pockets  of  the  Larynx  or  ventricles  of  Morgagni 
are  two  cavities,  the  functions  of  which  are  described  by 
various  writers  in  the  most  conflicting  manner.  The 
space  between  the  vocal  ligament  and  the  pocket  ligament 
(PL  XIV.,  I,  2,  4,  5)  is  the  entrance  to  the  left  pocket, 
the  pocket  itself  being  behind.  Professor  Struthers,  of 
Aberdeen  University,  compares  this  arrangement  to  a  fire- 
place with  the  chimney  behind.  The  fireplace  enters  the 
wall  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  merges  into  the  chimney, 
which  runs  behind  it  in  a  vertical  direction.  The  opening 
I,  2,  4,  5,  corresponds  to  the  fireplace,  and  the  pocket 
behind  it  to  the  chimney,  with  this  difference,  that  the 
chimney  is  open  at  the  top  and  passes  out  of  the  house. 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX.  71 

while  the  pocket  is  closed  at  the  top  and  remains  in  the 
larynx.  The  height  of  different  pockets  varies  greatly  ;  as 
a  rule  it  does  not  exceed  two-fifths  of  an  inch,  so  that  their 
terminations  do  not  reach  the  upper  border  of  the  shield 
cartilage.  But  there  are  instances  in  which  the  pockets 
are  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  inch  high ;  and  where 
such  is  the  case  they,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  reach 
beyond  the  shield.  Sometimes  they  are  so  high  as 
nearly  to  touch  the  root  of  the  tongue,  while  in  other 
cases  they  are  quite  shallow.  Their  outer  walls  are  chiefly 
formed  of  loose,  fatty,  cellular  tissue,  and  they  are  almost 
entirely  surrounded  by  a  multitude  of  minute  glands. 

The  Cartilages  of  Santorini,  so  called  after  their 
discoverer,  are  two  small  pliable  cartilages  attached  to  the 
summits  of  the  pyramids  which  they  protect  from  the 
pressure  of  the  lid  striking  against  them  in  the  act  of 
swallowing.  In  accordance  with  this  function  they  have 
been  named  the  "  buffer  cartilages."  ('  The  Throat  and  its 
Functions.'  Louis  Elsberg,  M.D.,  &c.  New  York: 
G.  P.  Putnam  &  Sons,  p.  31).  In  our  drawing  (PI.  XIV., 
3)  we  see  an  elevation  of  the  mucous  membrane,  indi- 
cating one  of  them  on  the  top  of  the  left  pyramid. 

From  the  buffer  cartilage  (PL  XIV.,  3),  running  up  to 
the  lid  (PI.  XIV.,  7),  there  is  a  fold  of  mucous  membrane 
{aryteno-epiglottic  fold)^  and  there  J.s,  of  course,  a  corre- 
sponding fold  in  the  right  half  fltthe  larynx.  These  folds 
of  mucous  membrane  are  stiffened  by  two  little  strips  of 
gristle  called  the  cundform  cartilages  which  consequently 
also  go  by  the  appropriate  name  of  the  "  prop  cartilages  " 
(Elsberg,  op.  cit.,  p.  31).  The  enlarged  upper  terminations 
of  the  prop  cartilages  are  called  the  "  cartilages  of  Wris- 
BERG."  The  left  one  of  these  is  shown  in  our  drawing 
(PI.  XIV.,  6),  and  the  prop  itself  may  be  traced  through 


72 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


the  mucous  membrane  running  in  a  downward  direction 
(PI.  XLV.,  6,  4). 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  understand  the  next  drawing 
(PI.  XV.),  and  to  examine  it  in  detail.  It  represents  an 
entire  larynx  cut  open  from  behind,  and  we  have  no  diffi- 
culty   in    recognising  the  parts  described  above.      If  we 


XV. — View  of  the  Voice-box  or  Larynx  cut  open  from  behind. 


I,  2.  Ring  cartilage. 

3,  4.  Pyramid  mubcle.   - 

5  &  6.  Vocal  ligaments.'     « 

5,  7,  6,  8.  Entrances  to  the  pockets. 

7  &  8.  Pocket  ligaments, 

9,  10.  Cartilages  of  Santorini. 


II  &  12.  Cartilages  of  Wrisberg. 
II,  13&12,  14.  Ary-epiglottic  folds* 

15.  Lid. 

16.  Windpipe. 

17.  Cushion  of  the  lid. 

18  &  19.  Prop  cartilages,  j 


could  bend  it  so  as  to  unite  the  two  ends  of  the  ring 
cartilage  (PI.  XV.,  i  and  2),  and  the  two  ends  of  the 
pyramid  muscle  (PI.  XV.,  3  and  4),  we  should  give  the 
larynx  its  natural  shape.  The  vocal  ligaments  (PI.  XV., 
5  and  6)  and  the  pocket  ligaments  (PI.  XV.,  7  and  8) 
would  run  in  a  forward  direction,  meeting  in  front,  and 


THE   VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX. 


73 


diverging  a  little  behind,  and  above  these  there  would  be  a 
kind  of  tube  called  the  "  vestibule  of  the  larynx." 

The  upper  rim  of  the  vestibule  is  formed  by  the  two 
buffer  cartilages  (PL  XVI.,  12  and  9),  by  the  two  cartilages 
of  Wrisberg  (PL  XVI.,  10  and  13),  the  two  folds  of  mucous 
membrane  running  up  to  the  lid  (PL  XVI.,  10,  11,  13  and 


f^Pi 


XVI.— The  Voice-box  or  Larynx  seen  from  behind. 


I,  2.  Ring  cartilage. 
3,  4.  Pyramid  muscle. 
5  &  6.  Shield. 
7  &  8.  Tongue  bone. 
9  &  12.   Cartilages  of  Santorini. 
10  &  13.  Cartilages  of  Wrisberg. 


II,  15,  14.  Lid. 

16.  Windpipe. 

17.  Cushion  of  the  lid.  •«■  ^ 

-  i8  &  19.  Back  ring-pyramid  muscles. 
20,  21  &  22,  23.  Constrictors  of  the 
vestibule. 


14),  and  by  the  top  of  the  lid  (PL  XVI.,  15).  The 
vestibule  of  the  larynx  extends  downwards  as  far  as  the 
pocket  ligaments,  and  we  observe  in  its  sides  the  prop 
cartilages  (PL  XV.,  18  and  19),  which,  as  we  have  seen 
above,  help  to  keep  it  open.  We  also  notice,  just  above 
the  point  at  which  the  pocket  ligaments  meet,  an  elevation 
(PL  XV.,  17)  which  is  called  the  "cushion"  of  the  epiglottis. 


74  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

Through  the  vestibule  (PI.  XVI.,  12,  10,  11,  15,  14,  13, 
9)  the  air  passes  in  respiration,  and  the  sound  in  singing 
and  speaking,  and  we  have  to  look  down  this  tube  with  the 
laryngoscope  when  we  wish  to  study  the  conditions  of  the 
larynx  in  the  act  of  producing  tone.  The  food  we  take 
passes  over  this  tube,  and  we  know  that  its  mouth  is 
covered  for  this  purpose  by  the  lid.  But  we  have  also 
seen  that  the  upper  free  part  of  the  epiglottis  (PL  XVI., 
15),  which  could  alone  cover  it,  is  entirely  wanting  in  some 
persons,  and  that  they,  nevertheless,  do  not  experience  any 
difficulty  in  swallowing.  There  must,  therefore,  be 
additional  safeguards,  and  we  discover,  upon  closer  ex- 
amination, an  arrangement  which  is  as  simple  as  it  is 
effective,  and  which  consists  in  the  pressing  together  of 
the  vocal  ligaments  and  of  the  pocket  ligaments.  The 
closure  of  the  pocket  ligaments  is  effected  by  the  vertical 
bundles  of  the  outer  portions  of  the  shield-pyramid  muscles, 
and  by  contraction  of  the  "  constrictor "  of  the  vestibule 
{arytenoideus  constrictor  vestibuli  laryngis)  (PI.  XVI.,  20, 
21  and  22,  23),  which  passes  up  from  the  bases  of  the* 
pyramids  to  the  lid  encircling  the  tapering  points  of  the 
pyramids  just  below  the  buffers,  and  then  stretching  itself 
over  the  prop  cartilages. 

Plate  XVI.  will  explain  this  matter  more  clearly  than 
any  verbal  description,  and  we  have  now  learnt  that  the 
closure  of  the  larynx  is  brought  about  by  three  factors, 
namely,  the  vocal  ligaments,  the  pocket  ligaments,  and  the 
lid.  Although,  therefore,  the  lid  must  ever  be  regarded  as 
the  chief  means  of  closing  the  larynx,  yet  we  can  easily 
understand  how,  in  its  absence,  the  other  parts  just 
enumerated  can  supply  its  place,  and  effectually  protect 
the  voice-box  from  any  intruding  foreign  substances. 

It  will  be  useful  to  point  out  here  that  the  closing  of 


THE  VOICE-BOX  OR  LARYNX.  75 

the  larynx  and  the  closing  of  the  glottis  are  two  very- 
different  things.  The  larynx  is  closed  in  swallowing,  in 
vomiting,  and  by  the  effort  of  squeezing  or  pressing  to- 
gether the  throat,  as  when  making  violent  efforts  of 
straining  or  of  lifting ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  in 
any  case  the  pocket  ligaments  can  be  sufficiently  pressed 
together  behind  to  make  the  closure  really  airtight,  because 
their  points  of  insertion  are  not,  as  we  have  before  re- 
marked, in  the  middle  line  of  the  larynx,  but  a  little  to 
the  right  and  left  of  it,  and  we  shall  see  what  elaborate  means 
are  necessary  to  bring  them  into  entire  contact  in  experi- 
ments upon  dead  larynges  (see  p.  143).  But  however 
this  -may  be,  it  is  quite  certain  that  in  the  production  of 
tone  the  pocket  ligaments^  while  in  a  healthy  state^  never 
MEET,  and  that  the  glottis  alone  is  closed.  This  is  a  fact 
of  which  there  cannot  be  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  in  the 
mind  of  the  merest  tyro  with  the  laryngoscope. 

The  pockets  are  the  means  of  isolating  the  vocal  liga- 
ments, thus  affording  them  room  to  range  themselves  and 
to  vibrate  freely  and  without  hindrance.  They  also  allow 
the  sound-waves  to  expand  sideways ;  and  lastly,  they 
produce,  with  their  many  little  glands,  moisture  for 
the  lubrication  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  without  which 
moisture,  according  to  the  investigations  of  J.  Miiller,  the 
production  of  tone  cannot  be  carried  on.  (^Ueber  die 
Compensation  der  physischen  Krafte  am  menschlichen 
Stimmorgan,'  p.  8.  Berlin,  i^39)- 

The  prop  cartilages  (PL  XV.,  18  and  19)  now  require  a 
little  additional  attention.  They  have,  according  to  some 
writers,  the  shape  of  the  letter  L,  and  their  little  horizontal 
arms  extend  into  the  vocal  ligaments,  enabling  them  to 
remain  partly  closed  and  to  let  only  a  part  of  their  length 
vibrate  in  the  production  of  tone.     The  Httle  horizontal 


76  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

arms  of  the  prop  cartilages  are,  in  fact,  by  one  of  these 
authors  considered  to  constitute  the  mechanism  of  the  so- 
called  "  head  voice,"  i.e.  the  highest  register  of  the  female 
voice. 

Madame  Seiler  says  that  they  "  reach  to  the  middle  of 
the  vocal  ligaments  by  which  they  are  enveloped." 
('  Voice  in  Singing.'    Philadelphia  :  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co., 

p.  189.)         _ 

Dr.  Witkowski  ('  The  Mechanism  of  Voice,  Speech,  and 
Taste.'  Translated  and  edited  by  Lennox  Browne. 
London:  Bailliere,  Tindall  &  Cox,  p.  12)  gives  a  descrip- 
tion of  these  cartilages  which  corresponds  very  closely  with 
that  of  Madame  Seiler.  Speaking  of  some  of  the  glands 
of  the  voice-box  he  says  :  "  They  are  arranged  in  the  form 
of  an  L,  whose  vertical  branch  goes  along  the  arytenoid 
cartilages,  the  horizontal  branch  following  the  direction 
of  the  vocal  cords.  There  is  often  found  situated  in  the 
midst  of  this  grotip  of  glands  the  cuneiform  cartilage  of 
Wrisberg^  sometimes  reduced  to  a  mere  cartilaginous 
granule." 

Dr.  Elsberg  (op.  cit.,  p.  37)  calls  them  the  "posterior 
vocal  nodules,"  and  describes  them  as  *'  elongated  nodules  " 
in  the  hinder  portion  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  and  says  they 
are  found  "more  often  in  the  female  than  in  the  male  sex" 
(PL  XIIL,  9  and  10,  p.  66), 

A  description  of  the  larynx  would  not  be  complete  with- 
out mentioning  yet  another  pair  of  very  minute  cartilages 
called  the  '^  anterior  vocal  nodules,"  or  sesamoidea  ante- 
riores  (PI.  XIIL,  11  and  12),  although  it  is  not  clear  what 
function  they  have  beyond,  perhaps,  toughening  the  vocal 
ligaments  at  their  points  of  attachment  to  the  shield 
cartilage. 


(  n   ) 


THE  RESONATOR  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGAN. 

The  Resonator  consists  of — 

1 .  The  pockets ; 

2.  The  pocket  Ugaments ; 

3.  The  vestibule  ; 

4.  The  lid ; 

5.  The  upper  part  of  the  throat,  or  pharynx  ; 

6.  The  cavities  of  the  nose  ;  and, 

7.  The  mouth. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  on  p.  75  that  the  pockets 
allow  the  tone-waves  to  expand  sideways.  This  must 
undoubtedly  have  some  influence  upon  the  quality  of  the 
tone;  and  the  size  of  the  pockets,  which,  as  we  have  seen 
before,  greatly  varies  in  different  persons,  may  therefore 
safely  be  assumed  to  be  of  some  consequence  in  this 
direction.  They  are  compared  by  some  authors  with  the 
membranous  bladders  which  protrude  from  the  necks  of 
certain  frogs  when  croaking;  or  with  the  enormous 
pouches  of  the  mycetes^  or  howling  monkeys  of  America, 
whose  voices  are  louder  than  the  roaring  of  lions.  The 
pockets  of  the  human  larynx,  in  proportion  to  the  neigh- 
bouring parts,  are,  however,  so  small  that  there  is  no 
justification  for  these  fantastic  comparisons,  which  are  the 
more  easily  shown  to  be  valueless  when  it  is  remembered 
that  such  animals  as  the  tiger,  or  the  ox,  which  are 
certainly  not  deficient  in  voice  power,  have  no  laryngeal 
pockets  at  all. 

Let  us  now  suppose  the  tone  to  emerge  from  the 
pockets ;  in  its  upward  course  it  next  strikes  against  the 
edges    of    the    pocket   ligaments,  and   their    thinness    or 


78  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

thickness,  sharpness  or  roundness,  cannot  fail  in  some  way 
to  affect  it.  The  tone  next  passes  through  the  vestibule, 
which,  as  we  know,  is  capable  of  being  contracted  or 
dilated,  and  it  then  comes  into  contact  with  the  lid  or 
epiglottis,  which  probably  varies  more  in  size,  shape,  and 
position  in  different  persons  than  any  other  part  of  the 
vocal  apparatus.  In  some  it  is  scarcely  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  high,  while  in  others  it  is  of  such  a  size  as  to 
project  over  the  tongue,  so  that  it  may  be  seen  as  soon  as 
the  mouth  is  opened.  It  may  be  barely  turned  over  a 
little  at  the  top,  or  it  may  be  rolled  up  like  a  piece  of 
cinnamon  bark.  It  may  stand  up  nearly  perpendicularly, 
leaving  the  larynx  quite  free,  or  it  may  slant  backwards  so 
as  to  hang  over  the  voice-box.  While,  however,  the  shape, 
size,  and  position  of  the  lid  varies  in  different  persons,  its 
position  is  also  continually  varying  in  the  same  individuals. 

It  is  quite  plain  from  the  foregoing  considerations  that 
the  lid  is  the  means  of  more  or  less  suddenly  and  abruptly 
turning  the  tone-waves  and  of  directing  them  under  one 
angle  or  another  against  the  back  of  the  throat  whence 
they  are  reflected  into  the  mouth.  We  are  therefore 
justified  in  concluding  that  the  lid  has  some  considerable 
influence  upon  the  quality  of  the  voice.  It  may  thus  be 
the  cause  of  certain  characteristics  which  enable  us  to 
recognise  the  voice  of  a  friend  though  we  do  not  see  him ; 
and  it  niay  also  account  for  some  similarities  of  voice 
which  are  found  in  many  families,  just  as  there  are 
similarities  of  features.  We  put  this  forth,  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  as  a  matter  of  conjecture,  which  has  neverthe- 
less sufl[icient  foundation  in  fact  to  be  interesting  as  a 
problem  in  the  production  of  voice  which  may  one  day  be 
satisfactorilv  solved. 

The   Upper   Part  of   the  Throat,   otherwise  called 


THE  RESONATOR.  79 


in  medical  works  the  pharynx.,  is  a  cavity,  the  largest 
part  of  which  may  be  seen  through  the  arch  at  the  back 
of  the  open  mouth.  The  gullet  and  the  larynx  open 
into  it  from  below,  and  the  mouth  and  the  nostrils  from 
above;  it  also  communicates  with  the  drums  of  the  ears 
by  means  of  two  narrow  channels  called  the  "  Eustachian 
tubes." 

The  Cavities  of  the  Nose  have  for  their  base  the  hard 
and  soft  palate  (PL  III.,  H  and  S,  p.  39),  and  they  are 
divided  by  a  bony  partition.  Each  cavity  consists  of  three 
channels,  of  which  we  arc  here  only  concerned  with  two,  as 
the  third  answers  a  purpose  outside  our  present  subject. 
These  channels  are  very  irregular  in  construction,  and  they 
are  so  contrived  as  to  temperate  the  air  we  inhale  so  that  it 
may  not  strike  cold  into  the  vocal  apparatus.  They  are 
also,  like  the  air-passages  below,  lined  with  a  mucous 
membrane  provided  with  those  wonderful  little  hair-like 
projections  called  cilia^  pointing  in  an  outward  direction 
and  continually  executing  to-and-fro  movements  from 
back  to  front.  This  arrangement,  combined  with  the 
glairy  fluid  secreted  by  the  innumerable  tiny  glands  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  enables  the  nasal  cavities  to  arrest  all 
impurities  of  the  air  which  v/ould  otherwise  find  their  way 
into  the  larynx  and  the  wind-pipe  or  even  into  the  lungs. 
The  cavities  of  the  nose,  therefore,  temperate  and  purify 
the  air  we  inhale,  and  they  may  be  regarded  as  a  natural 
"  respirator." 

The  Mouth  or  htccal  cavity  is  the  space  between  the   \ 
lips  in  front  and  the  pharynx  behind.     We  are  all  familiar   | 
with  the  shape  of  the  lips,  the  tongue,  and  the  teeth,  and  ' 
we  are  also  acquainted  with  their  movements  and  functions. 
The  only  part  of  the    mouth,   therefore,  of  which    it  is 
necessary  here  to  give  a  description  is  the  palate.     This  is 


8o 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


divided  into  two  portions,  namely,  the  hard  palate  in  front, 
and  the  sofi  pal; 

The  ItlKj^  Palate  is  tfie  hard  bony  polyfion  of  the 
roof  of  tht  mouth,  and  i^  bounded  in  front  asfid  at  the 
sides  by  tjie  sogkets^^pf  the  teeth  m  the^-rshoper  j^w,  while 
behind  it  |:eriiiin;^tes*in«thQ^soft  pal|^.  /IT\  isi  covered  with 
mucous  raembj-ifciije^ficj.^rj^ng  the^'^app  e4'  a  dome,  not 


XVII.— The  Soft  Palate. 


1.  Soft  Palate. 

2.  Uvula. 

3  &  4.  Anterior  pillars  of  the  fauces. 
5  &  6.  Posterior  pillars  of  the  fauces. 


7  &  8.  Tonsils. 

(The  space   between   the  pillars  3,  4 
and  5,  6,  is  called  the  "fauces.")- 


only  forms  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  but  also  the  floor  of 
the  nasal  cavities. 

The  Soft  Palate  (PI.  XVII.,  i)  is  the  movable  par- 
tition we  see  at  the  back  of  the  mouth,  and  it  is  formed  by 
a  variety  of  muscles  which  are  covered  by  a  continuation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  which  lines  the  hard  palate.  It 
has  the  shape  of  an  arch  with  two  curved  muscular  ridges 
on  either  side  which  are  called  the  "  pillars  of  the  fauces." 


THE  RES  ON  A  TOR.  8 1 


The  anterior  pillars  (PI.  XVII.,  3  and  4)  contain  a  pair 
of  muscles  (palato-glossi)  which  by  their  contraction 
straighten  and  tighten  them,  thereby  bringing  them 
closer  together  and  narrowing  the  space  between  them 
called  the  "  isthmus  of  the  fauces." 

The  posterior  pilhrs  (PI.  XVII.,  5  and  6)  contain  another 
pair  of  muscles  (palato-pharyngei)  which  rise  from  the 
upper  horns  of  the  shield  cartilage,  and  which,  by  their 
contraction,  not  only  approximate  the  posterior  pillars  of 
the  fauces,  but  also  the  plates  of  the  shield,  thereby 
narrowing  the  space  between  them. 

The  Uvula  (PL  XVII.,  2)  is  the  little  grape-shaped 
pendant  hanging  down  from  the  centre  of  the  soft  palate. 
It  chiefly  consists  of  a  muscle  (azygos-uvulae)  which  runs 
into  the  middle  line  of  the  soft  palate,  and  which  has  the 
power  of  shortening,  elevating,  and  retracting  the  uvula. 
The  reader  will  get  a  clear  idea  of  its  action  by  carefully 
comparing  the  photographs  facing  page  215,  which  show 
the  uvula  in  different  stages  of  contraction. 

In  addition  to  the  muscles  described  above  we  have 
still  to  notice  the  "  tensor  "  and  the  "  elevator  "  which,  as 
indicated  by  their  names,  serve  to  tighten  and  to  raise  the 
soft  palate. 

Having  thus  studied  the  various  parts  of  which  the  soft 
palate  is  composed,  we  can  readily  understand  that  it  is  of  a 
highly  mobile  nature.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  movable  partition, 
by  means  of  which  either  the  mouth  or  the  nasal  cavities 
can  be  almost  completely  separated  from  the  throat.  In 
order  fully  to  understand  this  the  reader  is  recommended 
to  look  at  the  lines  indicating  the  "  voice  passage  "  and  the 
''air  passage"  on  Plate  III.,  p.  39.  If  the  nasal  cavities  are 
to  be  shut  off  from  the  throat  the  soft  palate  is  raised  and 
pressed  against  the  back  of  the  pharynx.     The  closure  is 

G 


82  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

aided  by  a  sort  of  cushion  being  formed  upon  the  back  of 
the  uvula  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  which  elevates 
that  body.  If  the  mouth  is  to  be  shut  off  from  the 
throat,  the  soft  palate  is  lowered,  and  rests  closely  upon 
the  back  of  the  tongue. 

The  soft  palate  plays  a  most  important  part  in  vocal- 
isation. In  the  formation  of  all  pure  vowel  sounds  it  is 
raised,  thereby  more  or  less  tightly  closing  the  nasal 
cavities,  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  closure  is  modified 
for  the  different  vowel  sounds  as  follows : — 

It  is  loosest  for  ah,  tighter  for  ai,  tighter  again  for  ok, 
tighter  still  for  oo,  tightest  of  all  for  ee. 

This  has  been  clearly  shown  by  Czermak  in  the  following 
manner.  Lying  down  on  his  back,  he  had  the  nasal 
cavities  filled  with  tepid  water.  He  then  uttered  the 
various  vowel  sounds,  and  ascertained  from  the  quantity  of 
water  required  to  force  open  the  closure  formed  by  the 
soft  palate  the  degree  of  tightness  for  each  vowel.  He 
afterwards  constructed  a  very  ingenious  apparatus,  by  means 
of  which,  in  one  of  his  lectures,  he  demonstrated  this  fact 
to  his  audience. 

The  soft  palate  also  gradually  rises  as  we  sing  up  the 
scale,  and  it  occupies  a  different  position  for  every  different 
pitch ;  it  stands,  however,  lower  in  "  falsetto  "  than  in  the 
corresponding  high  "  chest "  tones.  It  must  also  be 
observed  that  the  closure  of  the  soft  palate  is  never 
sufficiently  tight  entirely  to  prevent  the  setting  up  of 
co-vibrations  in  the  nasal  cavities  with  those  passing  from 
the  pharynx  into  the  mouth. 


(     83    ) 


THF. 


'•a'SIVEBSITYj  ( 


DIFFERENCES   OF   THE    LARYNX    IN 
CHILDREN,  WOMEN,  AND  MEN. 

The  larynx  of  a  newly-born  baby  is  about  a  third  the 
size  of  that  of  a  woman,  but  it  appears  smaller  because  it 
is  closer  to  the  tongue-bone  than  at  a  later  period,  and  its 
outer  surface,  consisting  of  the  two  plates  of  the  shield 
cartilage,  forms  a  very  insignificant  curve  instead  of  that 
acute  angle  which  we  notice  in  the  larynx  of  men.  The 
voice-box  grows  very  rapidly  up  to  the  third  year,  and  less 
quickly  up  to  the  sixth,  and  from  this  time  up  to  the 
fourteenth  or  fifteenth  year  there  would  seem  to  be  no 
alteration  in  its  proportions,  and  it  is  very  much  the  same 
in  boys  as  in  girls.  The  voice  remains  all  this  time  the 
same  in  pitch  though  it  increases  in  compass,  and  its 
vibrational  number  does  not  exceed  that  of  grown-up 
women. 

At  the  time  of  puberty,  which  generally  takes  place  at 
the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen,  but  sometimes  a  couple  of 
years  sooner  or  later,  the  larynx  grows  rapidly  during  a 
period  of  from  six  months  to  two  or  three  years,  until  it 
attains  its  final  size.  In  boys  it  alters  in  the  proportions  of 
from  5  to  lo,  and  in  girls  from  5  to  7.  The  larynx  is  at 
this  time  more  or  less  red,  and  the  tissue  loose ;  the  vocal 
Ugaments  increase  not  only  in  length  but  also  in  thickness. 
In  boys  the  shield  cartilage  loses  the  gentle  curve,  and 
forms  the  prominence  which  goes  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Adam's  apple ;  "  the  larynx  in  its  entirety  increases  more 

G    2 


84  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

in  depth  than  in  height,  with  the  result  of  adding  to  the 
length  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  thereby  producing  lower 
tones.  In  girls  the  larynx  increases  more  in  height  than 
in  depth  and  width,  and  the  horizontal  outline  of  the  shield 
does  not  lose  its  evenness.  The  vocal  ligaments  remain 
shorter  and  thinner  than  in  the  male  voice-box.  At  this 
time  the  voices  are  said  to  be  breaking,  and  it  will  easily  be 
understood  from  the  above  explanation  why  the  child's 
voice  of  the  boy  changes  into  the  tenor  or  bass  of  the 
man,  while  the  difference  in  girls  is  but  slight  and  so 
gradual  as  frequently  to  be  almost  imperceptible.  The 
uncertainty  of  the  boy's  voice  during  the  time  of  mutation 
is  a  curious  phenomenon,  and,  assuming  the  growth  of  the 
larynx  to  take  place  in  all  its  component  parts  at  the  same 
rate,  not  easily  accounted  for.  The  explanation  is  pro- 
bably that  the  cartilages  grow  faster  than  the  muscles,  and 
that  the  muscles  consequently  lose  control  over  the 
cartilages  until  everything  is  finally  and  permanently  re- 
adjusted.^ 

We  have  thus  seen  that  while  before  the  period  of 
puberty  the  voice-box  is  materially  the  same  in  both  sexes, 
there  are  afterwards  considerable  differences  noticeable,  not 
only  with  regard  to  size,  but  also  with  regard  to  shape. 
Of  this  we  can,  to  a  large  extent,  satisfy  ourselves  by 
simply  comparing  the  throat  of  a  woman  with  that  of  a 
man,  as  the  one  is  round  and  smooth,  while  the  other 
shows  a  more  or  less  marked  protuberance.  These  dif- 
ferences may  be  more  clearly  observed  in  exsected  larynges, 
i.e.  in  voice-boxes  cut  out  of  dead  bodies ;  and  we  find  : — 

*  "  It  is  said  that  the  celebrated  Lablache  found  his  voice  changed  into 
an  excellent  bass  in  a  single  night,  after  having,  on  the  previous  day,  taxed 
his  voice  to  the  utmost  at  a  festival  of  the  church."  (James  Hunt,  op. 
cit.,  p.  III.) 


DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  LARYNX,  85 

1.  That  the  female  larynx  is  about  one-third  smaller 
than  the  male. 

2.  That  all  its  cartilages  are  thinner  and  more  delicate. 

3.  That  the  outer  horizontal  contour  of  the  female 
shield  cartilage  is  round  and  even,  while  that  of  the  male 
forms  an  acute  angle. 

4.  That  the  part  from  the  pocket  ligaments  upwards  is 
comparatively  lower  in  the  female  voice-box  than  in  the 
male,  and  much  less  developed. 

5.  That  the  upper  horns  of  the  female  larynx  are 
comparatively  shorter  than  those  of  the  male. 

6.  That  consequently  the  female  larynx  is  much  more 
closely  attached  to  the  tongue-bone  than  the  male,  which 
causes  the  position  of  the  voice-box  to  be  altogether 
higher  in  women  than  in  men. 

The  following  average  measurements,  taken  from 
Luschka's  great  work  on  the  larynx  ('  Der  Kehlkopf  des 
Menschen.'  Hubert  v.  Luschka,  M.D.,  &c.  Tubingen, 
1 87 1.  H.  Laupp),  and  reduced  from  centimetres  and 
milHmetres  to  inches  (Behnke,  op.  cit.,  p.  64),  show  at  a 
glance  the  difference  in  the  proportions  of  the  male  and  of 
the  female  larynx  : — 

Male.  Female. 

Height  of  voice-box  in  front  with  the  lid  1      2f  in.  i^  in. 

raised j  (7  cent.)  (4*8  cent.) 

Greatest  width  between  the   plates   of   the  1  '  if  in.  if  in. 

shield  cartilage I  (4  cent.)  (3  *  5  cent.) 

Depth  between  the  lower  border  of  the  shield  ) 

.,  ,    ,  .  •         r    1      I      I  s  in.  I  in. 

cartilage  and  the  opposite  point  of  the  \   ,  ^ 

,.,                  IV          V  f  (3  cent.)        (2-4  cent.) 

ring  cartilage j  /         \     -r  y 

Length  of  the  vocal  chink   .         .         .         -  \    ,         *  ,    ^     ' 

I  (25  mm.)         (15  mm.) 


If  there  were  no  difference  between  the  male  and  female 
larynx  except  that  of  size,  all  their  proportions  would,  of 


86  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

course,  be  the  same.     But  we  see  from  the  above  table 
that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  we  now  append  the  result. 

Differences  between  the  proportions  of  male  and  female 
voice-boxes  : — 

In  height  .         .         .         .         .  /o  of  an  inch. 

In  width  ......  I  „ 

In  depth  ......  f  „ 

In  length  of  the  vocal  chink       •         •  f  » 

With  age  the  cartilages  of  the  male  larynx  ossify,  while 
in  women  a  kind  of  second  mutation  takes  place,  and  in 
consequence  of  these  changes  the  voice  loses  in  power, 
beauty,  and  flexibility.  But  continual  practice  appears  to 
counteract  this  process  to  a  great  extent ;  at  all  events, 
there  are  many  exceptions  to  the  rule,  as  most  of  our 
readers  know  from  their  own  personal  observation. 


MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  LARYNX  WHICH  CAN 
BE  SEEN  OR  FELT. 

The  larynx  of  men  in  a  state  of  rest  occupies  a  position 
in  the  middle  of  the  throat,  while  that  of  women  stands, 
for  reasons  already  explained  in  the  last  chapter,  consider- 
ably higher.  We  have  also  seen,  on  a  former  occasion, 
that  the  voice-box  is  attached  by  ligaments  to  the  tongue- 
bone,  and  that  the  tongue-bone  is  firmly  connected  with 
the  root  of  the  tongue.  The  consequence  is  that  every 
movement  of  the  tongue  affects  the  position  of  the 
larynx.  In  addition  to  this  there  are  the  so-called  ^jt:- 
trinsic  laryngeal  muscles  which  may  be  briefly  described 
as  the  "  elevators "  and  the  "  depressors,"  and  which  have 
the  power,  as  implied  by  their  names,  of  raising  or 
lowering  the  larynx. 
/      The  larynx  goes  down  in  //aspiration,  reaching  a  lower 


MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  LARYNX.  87 

point  and  falling  more  rapidly  the  deeper  and  the  more 
vigorous  the  inflation.  By  opening  the  mouth  more  or 
less  widely  we  cause  the  voice-box  to  execute  correspond- 
ing downward  movements.  In  singing,  a  gradual  lowering 
of  it  is  noticeable  as  w^e  go  down  the  scale.  But  the 
descent  of  the  larynx  is  complete  in  the  acts  of  sucking 
and  of  yawning,  when  it  assumes  so  low  a  position  in  the 
throat  that  the  whole  of  the  windpipe  and  even  a  part  of 
the  ring  cartilage  disappears  in  the  chest. 

The  larynx  goes  up  in  ^;i;piration,  wdien  the  extent  and 
speed  of  the  movement  obviously,  to  a  great  extent, 
depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  preceding  inspiration.  It 
is  also  clear  that  we  must  be  raising  the  larynx  by  shutting 
the  mouth,  if  by  opening  it  we  had  previously  lowered  the 
voice-box.  In  singing  up  the  scale  the  larynx  gradually 
rises,  though  in  changing  the  mode  of  tone  production  it 
stands  lower  for  the  first  tones  of  the  higher  "  register " 
than  for  the  last  tones  of  the  corresponding  lower  register. 
It  must  be  also  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  quite  possible,  and 
under  certain  circumstances  even  necessary,  to  limit  these 
movements  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  highest  position 
is  occupied  by  the  larynx  in  the  act  of  swallowing,  when  it 
rises  so  completely  as  to  be  no  longer  noticeable  in  the 
throat. 

Further,  the  larynx  occupies  different  positions  in  the 
throat  in  whispering  various  vowel  sounds.  It  stands 
lowest  for  00  and  highest  for  ee^  the  succession  being  as 
follows :  00^  ok,  ah,  ai,  ee. 


\ 


S8  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


THE  HUMAN  VOICE  AS  A  MUSICAL 
INSTRUMENT. 

"Physiologists,"  says  Dr.  Witkowski  (op.  cit.,  p.  i),  "are 
quite  at  issue  when  they  endeavour  to  determine  what  kind 
of  instrument  the  vocal  organ  resembles  ;  indeed  Galien 
compares  it  to  a  flute,  Magendie  to  a  hautboy,  Despinez 
to  a  trombone,  Diday  to  a  hunting-horn,  Savart  to  a 
bird-catcher's  call,  Biot  to  an  organ-pipe,  Malgaigne  to 
the  little  instrument  used  by  the  exhibitors  of  "  Punch," 
and  Ferrein  to  a  spinet  or  harpsichord.  The  last  named 
compared  the  lips  of  the  glottis  to  the  strings  of  a  violin ; 
hence  was  given  the  name  vocal  cords,  which  they  have 
since  retained.  The  current  of  air  was  the  bow,  the 
thyroid  cartilages  the  points  d'appui,  the  arytenoids  the 
pegs,  and,  lastl}^,  the  muscles  inserted  in  them  the  power 
which  tensed  or  relaxed  the  cords." 

Of  the  above  theories  there  are  three  which  seem  par- 
ticularly plausible,  and  which  we  must  therefore  examine. 

I.  The  String  Theory. — The  vocal  ligaments  were 
compared  200  years  ago  by  Ferrein  to  vibrating  strings, 
and  as  the  sounds  of  both  are  raised  by  tension  there 
seem,  at  first  sight,  to  be  good  grounds  for  this  compari- 
son. We  have  since  learnt,  what  Ferrein  did  not  know, 
that  the  tone  of  the  vocal  ligaments  may  be  raised,  like 
that  of  strings,  by  shortening,  which  fact  goes  a  long  way 
towards  confirming  his  theory.  Nevertheless,  the  compari- 
son breaks  down  as  soon  as  we  examine  it  at  all  carefully, 
for  it  is  found  by  experiments  that  the  scale  of  changes 
produced  by  the  tension  of  strings  is  totally  different  from 
that  of  the  same  process  applied  to  the  vocal  ligaments. 
But  apart  from  this  it  is  manifestly  impossible  for  strings  as 


THE  VOICE  AS  A  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENT.  89 

short  as  the  vocal  ligaments  to  produce  the  resonant  low  tones 
of  deep  bass  voices.    The  theory  that  the  human  voice  is  a  . 
stringed  instrument  must  therefore  be  dismissed  as  untenable.  1 

1.  The  Flute-pipe  Theory. — We  have  seen  in  the  — 
chapter  on  sound  that  the  pitch  of  tones  produced  by 
flute-pipes  is  mainly  governed  by  the  length  of  the  tube. 
Now  the  larynx,  as  a  general  rule,  stands  lower  in  the 
throat  in  the  production  of  low  tones  than  in  the  pro- 
duction of  high  tones,  which,  of  course,  means  that  the 
vocal  tube  is  longer  in  the  production  of  low  tones  and 
shorter  in  the  production  of  high  tones.  There  would, 
consequently,  seem  to  be  some  justification  in  comparing 
the  human  voice  to  a  flute-pipe.  But  when  we  consider 
that  it  requires  an  open  tube  of  about  six  feet  to  produce 
the  low  G  of  any  ordinary  bass  voice,  we  see  at  once  that 
this  comparison  cannot  for  a  moment  be  seriously  main- 
tained, and  it  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  enter  into  details 
concerning  the  alterations  of  pitch,  &c. 

3.  The    Reed    Theory    is    the    one    most    generally   - 
accepted   by  modern    writers,  and   so    far  as    the    actual 
production  of  the  original  tones  of  the  voice  is  concerned  it 
is  absolutely  correct,  because  the  vocal  ligaments  cut  up  [ 
the  column  of  air  passing  between  them  into  a  quick  and  1 
regular  succession  of  puffs,  just  the  same  as  reeds.     If 
nothing  else  were  required  to  prove  the  case  the  human 
voice  would  undoubtedly  have  to  be    considered  a  reed 
instrument.      Let  us  therefore  look  into  this  matter  care- 
fully.    We  have  seen  in  the  chapter  on  sound  (p.  29)  that 
there  are  two  kinds  of  reeds,  namely,  stiff  reeds  and  flexible 
reeds.     Our  attention  can,  of  course,  only  be  claimed  by 
the  latter.     The  pitch  of  their  tones  is,  as  we  have  learnt,  r 
almost  entirely   governed   by  the  length   of  the  tube  to  I 
which  they  are  attached.     That  is  to  say,  the  vibrations  of 


90  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

the  column  of  air  in  the  tube  overpower  those  of  the  reed 
and  compel  it  to  vibrate  in  sympathy  with  themselves. 
What  this  really  means  will  be  seen  most  clearly  when  it  is 
remembered  that  in  instruments  like  the  clarionet  and  the 
oboe  the  same  reed  producing  the  sa7ne  tone  serves  for  the 
whole  compass,  and  that  the  alterations  in  pitch  are  solely 
brought  about  by  alterations  in  the  length  of  the  tube. 

Nor  is  this  all.  Not  only  are  instruments  such  as  the 
above  mentioned  capable  of  producing  low  tones  of  a  very 
different  pitch  from  those  high  tones  corresponding,  or 
nearly  corresponding,  to  the  proper  tones  of  their  tongues, 
but  these  high  tones  are  not  used  in  music  at  all,  because 
they  are  shrill  and  unpleasant,  and  their  pitch  cannot  be 
maintained  with  sufficient  certainty. 

There  is  yet  another  kind  of  reed  instrument  which  is 
formed  by  the  human  lips  in  brass  instruments,  and  as 
these  form  membranous  tongues  it  might  be  supposed  that 
their  action,  in  conjunction  with  the  tube  to  which  they  are 
attached,  corresponds  most  exactly  to  that  of  the  vocal 
ligaments  with  the  cavities  above  and  below  them. 

But  the  lips  cannot  produce  tone  by  any  vibrations  of 
their  own.  "  Babies  may  be  often  heard  to  '  trill  the  lips,' 
and  German  coachmen  use  a  very  audible  lip-trill  to  stop 
their  horses,  but  in  each  case  the  real  tone  is  produced  in 
the  larynx,  and  the  vibration  of  the  lips  only  serves  to 
interrupt  it ;  these  examples,  however,  allow  us  to  judge  of 
the  rate  of  vibration  natural  to  the  lips."  (Helmholtz,  op. 
cit.,  p.  147.  Footnote  by  Alexander  Ellis.)  We  also 
know  that  in  horns  and  trumpets,  &c.  (without  keys),  the 
range  is  limited  to  the  prime  tone,  with  its  harmonic  upper 
partials,  of  the  tube.  "  In  the  use  of  brass  instruments 
the  different  form  and  tension  of  the  lips  of  the  player  act 
only  to  determine  which  of  the  proper  tones  of  the  tube 


THE  VOICE  AS  A  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENT.  91 

shall  speak  ;  the  pitch  of  the  individual  tones  is  almost 
entirely  independent  of  the  tension  of  the  lips."  (Helm- 
holtz,  op.  cit.,  p.  149.) 

We  have  thus  fully  reviewed  the  nature  of  reed  instru- 
ments with  flexible  and  with  membranous  tongues,  and  we 
must  now  compare  their  leading  characteristics  with  those 
of  the  human  voice.  We  see  at  once  the  vast  difference 
between  reeds  and  the  vocal  ligaments,  inasmuch  as  the 
latter  "  have  the  advantage  over  all  artificially  constructed 
tongues  of  allowing  the  width  of  their  slit,  their  tension, 
and  even  their  form  to  be  altered  at  pleasure  with  extra- 
ordinary rapidity  and  certainty"  (Helmholtz,  op.  cit., 
p.  147),  which  is  equally  true  of  the  vocal  ligaments  as 
compared  with  the  human  lips  in  playing  upon  brass 
instruments. 

With  regard  to  the  vocal  tube  we  think  the  truth  is 
this :  the  resonator  of  the  human  voice,  commencing  with  / 
the  pockets  of  the  larynx  (or  ventricles  of  Morgagni)  and) 
ending  at  the  Hps  and  the  nostrils,  "admits  of  much 
variety  of  form,  so  that  many  more  qualities  of  tone  can 
be  thus  produced  than  on  any  instrument  of  artificial  con- 
struction." (Helmholtz,  op.  cit.,  p.  147.)  It  has  also 
some  influence  on  the  pitch.  This  is  proved  without  the 
shadow  of  a  doubt  by  the  fact,  first  discovered  by  Bonders, 
and  afterwards  worked  out  more  accurately  by  Helmholtz, 
Merkel,  Koenig,  and  others,  that  the  cavity  of  the  mouth 
for  different  vowels  is  tuned  to  different  pitches.  We  are 
not,  as  everybody  knows  by  practical  experience,  hereby 
prevented  from  hearing  the  various  vowels  except  on  tones 
the  partials  of  which  are  reinforced  by  different  shapes  of 
the  cavity  of  the  mouth  ;  but  certain  pitches  are  unques- 
tionably more  favourable  to  some  vowels  than  to  others. 

Again,  the  soft  palate  contracts  more  and  more,  and  the 


92  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

arch  between  the  pillars  of  the  fauces  gets  narrower  and 
higher,  as  we  sing  up  the  scale,  relaxing  again  visibly  when 
we  change,  for  instance,  from  "  chest  "  to  "  falsetto,"  just  as 
the  larynx  falls  under  the  same  circumstances  after  it  has 
previously  risen  in  the  throat.  The  contraction  of  the 
pillars  of  the  fauces  cannot  take  place  without  drawing 
together  the  upper  horns  of  the  larynx,  thereby  narrowing 
the  space  between  the  wings  of  the  shield  cartilage  ;  and 
this  movement  has  the  effect  of  raising  the  pitch  of  the 
voice,  as  any  one  can  prove  to  himself  by  imitating  it  with 
his  fingers  in  the  act  of  singing  a  tone. 

Finally,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  windpipe  has  the 
power,  to  some  extent,  of  varying  its  length  and  calibre, 
and  of  assuming  different  degrees  of  tension.  "The 
experiments  of  Savart  have  shown  that  a  cavity  which 
only  responds  to  a  shrill  note  when  its  walls  are  firm  and 
dry,  may  be  made  to  afford  a  great  variety  of  lower  tones 
when  its  walls  are  moistened  and  relaxed  in  various 
degrees.  This  observation  may  probably  be  applied  also 
to  the  trachea."  ('  Principles  of  Human  Physiology,'  by 
Dr.  Carpenter.    London  :  John  Churchill,  7th  ed.,  p.  791.) 

"Sir  Charles  Wheatstone  more  than  forty  years  ago 
drew  attention  to  this  relation  of  the  variation  in  tension 
of  a  tube  to  a  free  reed,  and  illustrated  it  by  the  instrument 
known  as  the  Jew's  harp,  in  which  the  reed,  being  set  in 
motion,  produces  one  steady  bass  sound.  The  variation 
of  sounds  is  produced  wholly  in  proportion  as  the  skill  and 
will  of  the  performer  varies  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  so  as 
to  present  a  succession  of  volumes  of  air  calculated  to 
vibrate  the  different  multiples  of  the  primary  bass  sound. 
This  influence  of  the  tube  is  by  experiment  found  to  be 
the  same  whether  the  tube  is  placed  after  the  reed,  as  in 
several  wind  instruments  or  before  and  after  it,  as  in  the 


THE  VOICE  AS  A  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENT.  93 

vocal  organs."  ('  Medical  Hints  on  the  Production  and 
Management  of  the  Singing  Voice,'  by  Lennox  Browne, 
F.R.C.S.     London  :  Chappell  &  Co.,  p.  27.) 

Under  these  circumstances  we  are  justified  in  declining  ' 
to  believe  that  the  alterations  in  the  length,  shape,  and 
tension  of  the  tubes  above  and  below  the  vocal  ligaments 
are  entirely  without  influence  upon  the  pitch  of  the  voice ; 
but  we  are  obliged  to  admit  that  it  plays  only  a  secondary 
part  in  the  matter.  The  questio!r  is  admirably  summed 
up  by  Helmholtz  in  the  following  words :  "  In  the 
larynx  the  tension  of  the  vocal  chords,  which  here 
form  the  membranous  tongues,  is  itself  variable,  and 
determines  the  pitch  of  the  tone.  The  air  chambers 
connected  with  the  larynx  are  not  adapted  for  materially 
altering  the  tone  of  the  vocal  chords.  Their  walls  are  so 
yielding  that  they  cannot  allow  the  formation  of  vibrations 
of  the  air  within  them  sufficiently  powerful  to  force  the 
vocal  chords  to  oscillate  with  a  period  which  is  different 
from  that  required  by  their  own  elasticity.  The  cavity  of 
the  mouth  is  also  far  too  short,  and  generally  too  widely 
open,  to  serve  as  a  resonance  chamber  which  could  have 
material  influence  on  the  pitch."     (Op.  cit.,  p.  149.) 

It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  considerations  that  the 
human  voice,  the  original  action  of  the  vocal  ligaments 
notwithstanding,  is  in  its  entirety  no  more  a  reed  instru- 
ment than  a  flute,  pipe,  or  a  string  instrument. 

There  are  authors  who,  having  come  to  the  same  con- 
clusion, try  to  compromise  matters  by  asserting  that  the 
human  voice  combines  the  properties  of  the  above-named 
three  classes  of  instruments ;  but  the  laws  governing  reeds, 
flute-pipes,  and  strings  are  so  totally  different  as  to  make 
such  a  combination  a  physical  impossibility.  The  fact  is 
that  the  human  voice  is  so  immeasurably  superior  to  any 


94  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

instrument  made  by  human  hands  that  all  attempts  at  de- 
fining its  nature  must  necessarily  fail.  "  The  vox  humana 
of  the  Divine  Artificer  is  an  incomparably  more  complex, 
as  it  is  an  incomparably  more  beautiful,  instrument  than 
any  of  its  compeers.  Fearfully  and  wonderfully  is  it 
made.  Not  only  is  its  mechanism  more  intricate,  not 
only  are  its  constituent  parts  more  numerous  and  delicate 
than  those  of  any  artificial  organ,  but  the  action  of  these 
is  complicated  by  conditions  from  which  every  other 
instrument  is  free."  ('  The  Cultivation  of  the  Speaking 
Voice,'  by  John  Hullah.  London :  Macmillan  &  Co., 
p.  9.) 

PHYSICAL  CAUSES  OF  THE  DIVISION  OF  VOICES. 

We  now  come  to  the  question  how  the  various  classes 
of  voice — i.e.  soprano,  contralto,  tenor,  and  bass — are  to  be 
accounted  for  by  physical  differences.  Tone  is  produced 
by  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal  ligaments  ;  unquestionably, 
therefore,  a  voice  must  be  high  or  low  according  to  the 
number  of  vibrations  the  ligaments  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing within  a  given  time.  This  is  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  sound,  and  admits  of  no  objection.  When, 
however,  we  endeavour  to  ascertain  upon  what  conditions 
this  vibrational  number  depends,  we  are  met  by  great 
difficulties,  because  the  subject  is  still  to  a  great  extent 
shrouded  in  mystery. 

But  as  a  logical  consequence  of  the  conclusion  at  which 
we  arrived  when  discussing  the  question  whether  the 
human  voice  is  a  reed  instrument  or  not,  we  are  now 
driven  to  admit  that  the  chief,  though  not  the  only,  cause 
of  the  differences  between  the  different  classes  of  voices 
must  be  sought  in  the  vocal  ligaments. 


CA  USES  OF  DIFFERENCES  IN  VOICES.  95 

When  we  compare  the  vocal  ligaments  of  a  soprano 
with  those  of  a  bass  we  see  so  great  a  difference  in  the 
dimensions  of  the  two  pairs  of  ligaments,  i.e.  in  their 
length,  width,  and  thickness  that  no  one  would  hesitate  as 
to  which  of  the  two  produced  the  high  voice  and  which 
the  low  one.  This  difference  of  size  is  even  more  striking 
in  exsected  larynges  than  in  living  persons,  because  in  the 
former  we  can  carefully  examine  the  vocal  ligaments,  not 
only  from  above,  but  also  from  below  ;  and  we  cannot  fail 
to  be  struck  with  the  fact  that  the  proportions  of  the  male 
larynx  as  a  body  are  much  larger  in  every  direction  than^ 
those  of  the  female. 

So  far,  then,  the  matter  is  clear  enough,  and  goes  a  long 
way  to  confirm  the  principle  of  small  vocal  ligaments  fon/^ 
high  voices   and  of  large  vocal  ligaments  for  low  voices. 
But  the  difference  between  the  vocal  ligaments  of  soprano 
and  contralto  on  the  one  hand,  and  between  those  of  tenor 
and  bass  on  the  other,  are  not  always  equally  marked.     It 
is  true  that,  as  a  rule,  the  vocal  ligaments  of  soprano  and,^— 
tenor  are  shorter  than  those  of  contralto  and  bass ;  but  it  is  /^ 
also  true  that  sometimes  the  very  opposite  is  the  case. 

When  the  ligaments  of  contralto  and  bass  are  compara- 
tively short,  they  are  thick  in  proportion  ;  their  tension  is 
also  small  because  their  thickness  is  due  to  the  large  bulk 
of  the  shield-pyramid  muscles  which  are  contained  in 
them,  and  this  enables  them  to  yield  less  to  the  stretching 
influence  of  the  ring-shield  muscles  than  would  otherwise 
be  the  case.  ' 

When  the  ligaments  of  soprano  and  tenor  are  compara- 
tively long,  they  are  thin  in  proportion ;  their  tension  is 
also  relatively  great  because  their  thinness  is  due  to  the 
small  bulk  of  the  shield-pyramid  muscles,  and  this  prevents 
them  from  resisting  the  stretching  influence  of  the  ring- 


96  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

shield  muscles,  as  much  as  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  vocal  ligaments  occupy  a 
very  slanting  position,  which  causes  them  to  "  speak  "  very 
readily,  i.e.  little  power  of  blast  is  required  to  set  them  in 
vibration.  Soprano  and  tenor  voices  with  such  a  mechanism 
are  of  a  light  and  flexible  kind,  and  their  higher  registers 
are  readily  united  with  the  lower  ones. 

The  above  statements  are  confirmed  by  that  great 
authority.  Prof.  Merkel,  of  Leipzig,  who  most  minutely 
explains  the  subject  in  his  latest  work  on  the  larynx. 
(*  Der  Kehlkopf,'  by  Carl  Ludwig  Merkel,  M.D.  Leipzig  : 
J.  J.  Weber.)  There  are,  however,  without  any  doubt, 
other  factors  besides  those  enumerated  above,  which  are 
of  consequence  in  determining  the  particular  kind  of  voice 
to  be  produced  by  this  or  that  vocal  apparatus,  as  for 
instance  the  tube  above  the  vocal  ligaments,  or  the  wind- 
pipe, or  both.  Thus  we  have  seen  that  a  pressing  together 
of  the  upper  portion  of  the  shield  cartilage  has  the  effect  of 
raising  the  pitch  of  the  voice.  It  is,  therefore,  but  reason- 
/  able  to  infer  that  larynges  in  which  this  part  is  naturally 
narrower  than  in  others,  will  produce  a  higher  voice. 

With  regard  to  the  trachea.  Dr.  Jagielski  has  suggested 
that,  "  following  a  general  law,  the  calibre  and  length  of  the 
/windpipe  is  less  in  short  people  than  in  tall,  and  that,  there- 
fore, persons  with  high  voicesjxc  generally  short  in  stature. 
Where  the  singer  is  tall,  with  tenor  or  soprano  range,  he 
believes  that  the  windpipe  branches  off  very  high  up,  and 
so  the  tube  is  lessened  in  length,  and  that  the  wind-pipe 
and  larynx  are  disproportionate  to  the  stature,  and  vice 
versa  where  persons  of  short  stature  have  low  voices." 
(Lennox  Browne,  op.  cit.,  p.  29.)  It  is  possible  that  the 
capacity  of  the  chest,  the  structure  of  the  whole  body,  or 
even,  as    imagined    by  some,    the    complexion,  may   have 


CAUSES  OF  DIFFERENCES  IN  VOICES.  97 

something  to  do  with  the  kind  of  voice  a  person  possesses; 
but  we  have  not  as  yet  any  knowledge  with  regard  to  such 
influences,  and  they  consequently  remain  for  the  present  a 
matter  of  speculation. 

To  what  an  extent  such  speculation  is  carried  by  some 
writers  may  be  seen  from  the  following  amusing  paragraph 
in  Musical  Opinion,  March  ist,  1883:  "The  voice  is  y 
more  acute  among  the  inferior  than  in  the  higher  orders  ^ 
of  animals,  in  the  birds  than  in  the  mammalia,  in  the 
smaller  species  than  m  the  larger.  The  ancient  nations 
must  have  had  higher  voices,  because  the  Adam's  apple, 
which  is  the  more  prominent  the  lower  the  voice,  wasy 
regarded  as  a  deformity.  In  proportion  as  races  are 
developed  the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  larynx  is 
increased.  The  Adam's  apple  becomes  more  and  more 
pronounced,  and  the  voice  tends  constantly  to  become 
lower.  The  primitive  peoples  of  Europe  must  have  had 
nothing  but  tenor  voices ;  their  actual  descendants  are 
baritones ;  our  posterity  in  the  future,  according  to  the 
doctor's  theory,  will  be  all  bassos.  We  are  descending 
the  scale  of  sounds.  The  races  which  are  still  in  the  rear 
of  civilisation  ought,  therefore,  at  the  present  moment, 
says  Dr.  Delaunay,  to  have  higher  voices  than  the  white 
races.  This,  he  affirms,  is  the  case  with  the  negroes  and 
the  Mongolians.  The  height  of  the  voice,  he  continues, 
is  so  clearly  a  characteristic  of  the  stage  of  evolution, 
that  as  age  advances,  the  limits  of  the  human  voice 
continue  to  remove  from  the  acute  to  the  grave,  conse- 
quently one  may  be  a  tenor  at  sixteen,  a  baritone  at 
twenty-five,  and  a  bass  at  thirty-five  years  of  age. 

"  In  general — it  is  always  the  doctor  who  speaks — sopranos 
and  tenors  are  blonde,  while  the  contraltos  and  basses  arey 
brown.      Tenors  are  thin,    basses  are  fat.     The   voice  is 

H 


98  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

grave  in  men  of  seriousness  and  intelligence.  It  is  fluty — - 
we  are  still  quoting  Dr.  Delaunay — among  the  frivolous 
and  empty-headed. 

"  The  voice  is  higher  before  eating  than  after.  This  is 
the  reason  why  tenors  and  sopranos  dine  early.  Stimulant 
foods  and  strong  liquors,  by  provoking  a  certain  congestion 
of  the  larynx,  make  the  voice  lower.  Therefore  tenors  are 
sober  and  avoid  alcoholic  drinks  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
bassos  can  with  impunity  eat  and  drink  what  they  like. 

*'  The  action  of  singing,  again,  determines  a  congestion 
of  the  organs  of  phonation.  A  tenor  who  uses  his  voice 
too  much  loses  his  high  notes,  and  becomes  a  baritone. 
/  All  singers,  whether  male  or  female,  can  go  higher  in  the 
morning  than  in  the  evening.  The  music  of  matins  is 
higher  than  vespers.  The  voice  is  higher  in  the  south 
than  in  the  north.  The  majority  of  French  tenors  come 
from  the  departments  which  border  on  the  Mediterranean 
or  the  Pyrenees.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  north  we  find 
the  basses.  At  the  Russian  Church  in  Paris  there  are 
basses  who  can  give  the  contre-ut-de  poitrine, 

"  The  voice  js  somewhat  higher  in  summer  than  in 
winter.  The  pitch  is  aflfected  by  the  variations  of  tem- 
perature. M.  Delaunay  might  have  added  that  it 
depends  also  on  the  variations  of  the  barometer."  , 


(    99    ) 
>X^^   OP  THE         ><^ 

'•OHIVERSIT 
%^^ 

/the  hygienic  aspect  of  the  vocal 
apparatus. 

To  those  who  have  studied  carefully  the  foregoing 
chapters,  and  have  rightly  appreciated  the  importance  of 
accurate  knowledge  of  their  vocal  organ  as  a  whole  and  in 
a  state  of  health,  little  need  be  said  to  enforce  attention  to 
Nature's  simple  laws  for  the  general  sanitary  well-being  of 
the  singer  and  speaker ;  nor  need  much  argument  be 
employed  to  prove  that  only  second  in  the  importance  of  a 
sound  body  for  a  sound  mind  is  the  necessity  for  such  a 
condition  to  possession  of  a  pure  voice.  The  reader  may, 
however,  be  encouraged  to  learn  at  the  commencement  of 
our  remarks,  that  in  direct  proportion  as  he  takes  care  of  \ 
his  body  will  his  vocal  health  and  strength  be  maintained,  • 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  better  the  voice  the  better 
usually  is  the  general  health,  and  the  more  robust  the 
vocal  organ  ;  for  above  everything  does  good  tone  pro- 
duction imply  high  oxygenation  of  the  tissues;  and.  a 
delicate  condition  of  the  throat  is,  if  not  invariably,  most 
frequently  the  result  of  wrong  use  or  abuse  of  its  functions. 
Physical  strength  and  digestion  by  no  means  universally 
interfere  with  the  force  of  brain  of  the  writer  or  compose?^ 
nor  with  the  hand  of  the  painter,  and  though  naturally 
either  pen  or  brush  is  wofully  handicapped  where  the 
health  of  him  who  wields  it  is  impaired,  much  good  literary 
and  artistic  work — and  even  the  very  best — has  been 
achieved  by  the  feeble  and  delicate.  For  singing,  however, 
the   body  is  an  essential  part  of  the  voice,  it  is  the  very 

H    2 


loo  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

encasement  of  the  instrument,  and  if  at  any  time  disordered 
in  health,  impairment  of  vocal  function  is  a  direct  and 
immediate  result.  For  in  voice  production  alone  can  no 
correction  of  faults  be  made  when  the  tone  has  once  been 
uttered,  and  unlike  the  written  phrase  or  painted  work 
it  must  tell  its  own  tale  at  the  very  moment  it  issues 
from  its  possessor. 

We  trust  to  the  reader's  good  sense  not  to  think  any 
direction  as  to  diet,  exercise,  or  health  unworthy  of  atten- 
tion because  at  first  sight  it  may  appear  trivial.  The 
successful  singer's  life  must  be  one  long  practice  of  self- 
denial.  Articles  of  diet  which,  if  not  beneficial  from  a 
food  point  of  view,  may  be  harmless  to  the  ordinary 
individual,  will  often  prove  detrimental  to  the  due  capacity 
of  breathing  power  necessary  for  the  vocalist,  or  they  may 
from  their  piquancy  act  as  direct  irritants  of  the  fauces  and 
impair  timbre  and  resonance,  or  as  reflex  irritants  aflfect 
volition  and  certainty  of  utterance.  Violent  or  even 
moderate  athletic  exercise  must  be  avoided,  or  indulged  in 
only  with  rigid  precautions  against  a  too  sudden  lowering 
of  the  increased  body  temperature.  Indulgence  in  dancing 
and  other  innocent  amusements,  from  the  additional  reason 
that  they  occasion  exposure  to  inhalations  of  dust  and  too 
late  hours,  will  often  have  to  be  abjured,  or  enjoyed  only  at 
the  risk  of  impairment  of  the  singer's  great  possession. 
While  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  many  grand  voices 
have  been  irretrievably  ruined  by  neglect  of  this  quality  of 
self-abnegation,  it  is  equally  true  that  thousands  find  them- 
selves cheerfully  abstaining  from  luxuries  of  the  table  and 
the  so-called  pleasures  of  their  non-singing  relatives  and 
friends  for  the  sake  of  retaining  their  one  great  and  heaven- 
bestowed  gift,  and  with  the  result  of  materially  conserving 
their   general    health   and  vitality  as  well    as  their  voice. 


HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  V0CAL'4PPA1i'Am^J.::  \  li^i 

For  reasons  already  stated  there  is  indeed  nothing  to  be 
said  as  to  the  rule  of  life  of  a  voice-user  that  would  not  be 
beneficial  to  the  health  of  every  individual,  only  while  to 
the  one  attention  to  detail  is  essential  for  the  performance 
of  daily  duty,  to  others  it  is,  though  always  advisable,  only 
absolutely  necessary  when  warned  by  illness  that  a  law  of 
nature  has  been  transgressed. 

Health  management  of  the  human  voice  must  be  viewed 
then  from  very  many  and  various,  but  equally  important, 
standpoints.  In  the  first  place  it  should  be  considered  in 
relation  to  hygiene  as  affecting  elements  of  its  composition 
already  considered  when  treating  of  its  mechanism ;  and 
this  will  be  the  purpose  of  this  chapter.  It  will  comprise 
consideration  of  (i)  the  motor  portion  representing  the 
lungs  and  their  function  of  respiration ;  (2)  the  vibrat- 
ing portion  representing  the  larynx  and  the  share  it 
takes  in  the  production  of  various  pure  vocal  tones  by  ^ 
varied  use  of  the  registers ;  (3)  the  resonant  cavity  as 
comprised  in  the  pharynx,  fauces,  cavity  of  the  mouth, 
and  nasal  passages ;  and  lastly,  the  articulating  apparatus 
in  which  are  included  the  tongue,  palate,  lips,  teeth,  &c. 

To  render  more  complete  the  discussion  of  all  points 
connected  with  these  different  portions  of  the  vocal  organ 
from  initial  force  to  articulate  emission  it  will  be  further 
necessary  to  consider  the  influence  of  fashion,  dress,  diet, 
and  many  simple  points  of  hygiene  on  the  general  health, 
matters  which  may  be  considered  as  part  and  parcel  of  the 
daily  life  of  the  voice-user,  and  in  conclusion  we  will  say 
something  as  to  the  commoner  diseased  conditions  in  so  far 
as  they  may  be  recognised  as  a  cause  of  vocal  impairment, 
or  as  remediable  by  means  within  the  reach  of  the  non- 
medical reader.  We  do  not  desire  for  one  moment  to  invite 
the  reader  to   be   constantly  doctoring    himself — in   fact. 


^°^\\  \A  'y^iy^^^i^^*  fONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

nothing  could  be  more  pernicious  than  such  a  practice,  both 
to  the  vocal  organ  itself  and  to  the  mental  happiness  of  its 
possessor.  On  the  contrary,  we  hope  to  be  able  to  prove 
that  defects  in  voice-production  from  the  medical  point  of 
view,  no  less  than  from  the  teacher's,  depend  in  by  far  the 
majority  of  instances,  on  general  and  not  on  local  causes ; 
and  if  we  can  indicate  these  we  shall  confer  great  benefit 
on  the  class  for  whom  we  write,  by  inducing  them  to  seek 
for  a  cause  instead  of  treating  symptoms  by  quack  nostrums 
whose  effects  are  almost  always,  when  not  negative,  actually 
harmful. 


I.— THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  MANAGEMENT  OF 
THE  MOTOR  PORTION— RESPIRATION. 

The  question  of  breathing  has  been  very  fully  considered 
in  its  physiological  aspect,  and  very  complete  directions  as 
to  the  best  methods  of  exercising  the  act  are  contained  in 
the  chapter  on  practice  ;  but  something  may  be  said  in 
viewing  it  from  a  medical  aspect,  as  to  the  chemical  act  of 
respiration  ;  that  is,  how  does  it  affect  the  general  vitality 
independently  of  its  action  on  the  vocal  ligaments  ?  And 
then,  how  from  the  mechanical  point  of  view  does  it  affect 
the  health  or  perfection  of  the  vocal  mechanism  in  part 
and  as  a  whole  ? 

Respiration  chemically  considered. — Dry  air  con- 
sists of  four  volumes  of  nitrogen,  one  volume  of  oxygen, 
a  very  little  carbonic  acid,  and  a  mere  trace  of  several 
other  substances. 

Oxygen  is  by  far  the  most  active  constituent  of  the  air, 
and  to  the  agency  of  it  are  owing  the  existence  of  animal 
life,  the  maintenance  of  combustion,  &c. 

Nitrogen  forms  the  bulk  of  the  air.     It  possesses  few 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREATHING.  103 

chemical  properties  of  consequence,  but  performs  the 
important  part  of  diluting  the  oxygen  which,  if  inhaled 
alone,  would  act  with  too  great  intensity. 

The  following  graphic  description  of  the  process  of 
breathing  and  of  its  effects  upon  the  general  economy, 
is  condensed  from  Dr.  Paul  Niemeyer's  'Die  Lunge,' 
Leipzig.     J.  J.  Weber,  1872: — 

"The  Ltings  (i)  swallow  the  air;  (2)  digest  it,  and  (3) 
throw  it  out  again  after  it  has  become  useless." 

"The  Air  we  breathe  out  is  (i)  warmer  than  when 
inhaled ;  of  this  we  have  a  proof  in  winter  when  our  lungs 
seem  positively  to  be  steaming ;  (2)  it  carries  water  which 
we  can  condense  on  a  cold  pane  of  glass,  and  which  in 
very  cold  weather  freezes  in  our  beards,  on  ladies'  veils,  &c. ; 
(3)  it  is  also  otherwise  chemically  altered,  as  we  perceive 
on  entering  a  close  room  full  of  people,  when  we  instinc- 
tively hurry  to  the  nearest  window  and  throw  it  open.  We 
have  an  impression  that  the  air  in  the  room  is  very 
different  from  that  we  have  just  been  inhaling  out  of 
doors ;  and  that  this  is  true  would  be  proved  if  one  of 
those  present  were  to  blow  through  a  little  glass  tube  into 
a  bottle  filled  with  lime-water,  or  if  we  left  a  wide-mouthed 
bottle  of  this  fluid  standing  open  in  the  room.  The  lime- 
water  would  very  soon  become  thereby  clouded,  the  cause 
of  which  change  is  that  the  hme  uniting  wnth  the  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  breath  produces  white  carbonate 
of  lime,  or  in  plain  English,  chalk.  A  change  of  gases 
therefore  takes  place  in  the  lungs,  which  is  brought  about 
in  this  way :  the  blood  consumes  the  oxygen  and  throws 
out  carbonic  acid  in  return." 

The  restdi  of  this  is  that  our  dark-blue  blood  is 
changed  into  bright-red  blood  without  w^hich  we  cannot 
perform  the  simplest  muscular  act,  such  as  lifting  an  arm 


I04  VOICE,  ^ONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

or  moving  a  finger ;  and  this  is  what  is  called  the  chemical 
aspect  of  breathing. 

Oxygen,  as  we  thus  see,  is  the  oil  in  the  lamp  of  life,  and 
the  necessity  of  always  having  fresh  air  is  therefore  self- 
evident.  The  question,  then,  of  the  purity  of  the  air  to  be 
breathed  is  one  of  immeasurable  importance,  but  one  very 
generally  neglected.  The  difference  between  the  air  of 
the  practice-room  of  the  singer  in  daylight  and  of  the 
gas-heated  and  often  dust-laden  concert-room  and  theatre 
is  undoubtedly  the  cause  of  many  a  failure  and  disappoint- 
ment of  both  vocalist  and  entrepreneur,  who  have,  as  the 
result  of  rehearsal,  anticipated  a  success  not  always  realised 
on  the  pubHc  platform.  Supposing  all  that  was  necessary 
in  breathing  in  air  to  the  lungs  was  for  the  individual  to 
take  in  a  large  amount  at  a  time  irrespective  of  con- 
siderations of  temperature  and  dust,  particles  of  organic 
and  inorganic  matter  such  as  are  always  floating  about  in 
the  atmosphere  of  cities  and  habitations,  there  would  be 
no  reason  why  he  should  not  inhale  with  the  open  mouth ; 
but  since  nature  has  provided,  in  the  nostrils,  an  apparatus 
both  for  warming  and  filtering  the  air,  it  is  important  that 
this  passage  should  be  used,  and  that  it  should  be  quite 
open  and  unimpeded.  Nasal  breathing  is  also  desirable 
because  the  muscles  of  the  mouth  and  throat  to  be  used 
in  articulation,  must  not  be  fatigued  by  unnecessary  and 
contrary  actions.  This  point  has  been  insisted  on  by  both 
of  us  in  previous  works,  and  its  importance  has  been 
recognised  by  many  leading  authorities.  In  point  of  fact, 
however,  much  misapprehension  exists  on  the  question. 
While  we  urge  the  importance  of  nose-breathing  for  full 
inflation,  which  is  an  act  to  be  performed  slowly,  steadily, 
and  gradually,  we  do  not  deny  that  for  rapid  half-breaths 
occasionally  demanded  by  the  singer  or  speaker,  inspiration 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREATHING.  105 

by  the  mouth  is  not  only  justifiable  but  unavoidable. 
Habitual  practice,  however,  in  mouth-breathing  can  only 
lead  to  great  discomfort,  if  not  to  actual  and  direct  mischief 
of  the  throat,  windpipe,  and  chest ;  and  such  is  very  probable 
to  result  in  the  foggy  and  cold-damp  weather  of  spring, 
autumn,  and  winter,  three  parts  of  the  year  as  experienced 
in  this  country.  As  Dr.  Elsberg  remarks  (Op.  cit., 
p.  17),  "The  natural  mode  of  quiet  breathing  is  through 
the  nose ;  mouth-breathing  is  an  acquirement.  A  new- 
born infant  would  choke  to  death  if  you  closed  its 
nose;  it  does  not  immediately  know  how  to  get  air 
into  the  lungs  through  the  mouth  until  after,  by  de- 
pressing the  tongue,  you  have  once  made  a  passage 
for  it."  Those  who  have  had  a  cold  in  the  head,  which 
obstructs  the  nostrils,  know  the  great  temporary  dis- 
comfort occasioned,  and  there  is  probably  no  affection 
more  irksome  and  depressing  than  a  constant  closure  of 
the  nasal  passages,  as  caused  by  polypus  or  any  other 
obstruction.  It  may  be  added  that  even  asthma  and 
other  serious  chest  diseases  are  induced  from  this  cause, 
and  that  the  purity  and  resonance  of  all  vocal  tone  is 
diminished  or  destroyed  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  closure.  In  another  place  we  answer  the  absurd 
objections  of  those  who  think  that  pursuance  of  the 
natural  practice  which  we  advocate  leads  to  production 
of  a  disagreeable  tone-quality  which  is  called  "  nasal." 

As  these  pages  pass  through  our  hands  for  press  we  read, 
and  here  make  note,  of  a  very  instructive  case  reported  in 
the  Lancet  of  April  21,  1883,  by  Mr.  Walsham,  in  which 
the  singing  voice  had  been  quite  lost  for  some  few  years,  as 
the  result  of  the  septum  of  the  nose  being  strongly  bent  to 
the  right  side.  After  an  operation  for  the  cure  of  this 
defect  "  the  nasal  intonation  was  lost,  the  patient  is  now 


io6  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

able  to  sing  with  pleasure  and  his  friends  consider  he  has  a 
very  good  voice." 

Mr.  Curwen,  in  his  admirable  '  Teachers'  Manual,'  has 
well  said,  "the  singer's  purpose  necessitates  a  larger  use  of 
breath  than  is  needed  for  ordinary  respiration,"  as  indeed 
it  is  for  all  muscular  efforts  requiring  extra  exertion,  as 
those  of  Hfting  weights,  running,  &c.,  but  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  effort  to  increase  the  lung  capacity  for 
any  of  these  actions  is  injurious ;  on  the  contrary  it  is 
beneficial,  for  the  very  act  implies,  unless  the  muscles  be 
wrongly  used  or  strained,  and  provided  also  that  the 
inhaled  air  be  pure,  that  the  blood  is  so  much  the  more 
purified,  and  consequently  the  general  bodily  strength  is 
so  much  the  more  increased.  Hence  we  see  that  from  a 
health  point  of  view,  no  less  than  from  the  singer's,  the 
lungs  must  be  well  inflated  with  air  of  good  quality ; 
and  therefore  not  only  should  the  room  in  which  sing- 
ing is  practised  be  well  ventilated  so  that  the  air  inspired  be 
pure,  but  the  more  immediate  surroundings,  as  the  clothing 
of  the  singer,  must  be  free,  so  as  not  to  impede  inspiration 
or  impair  regularity  and  economy  of  expiration. 

Very  pertinent  to  this  question  is  the  hygienic  aspect  of 
respirators,  which,  though  doubtless  of  service  to  some 
persons,  particularly  females,  and  in  some  circumstances, 
are  by  no  means  without  practical  drawbacks.  In  the 
first  place  they  encourage  mouth-breathing  to  the  neglect 
of  respiration  through  the  nostrils.  Secondly,  from  the 
excessive  warmth  of  the  inhaled  air  they  may  actually  in- 
duce that  very  delicacy  of  the  throat  and  lungs,  and  a 
greater  liability  to  take  cold  on  removal,  which  is  the  special 
intention  of  the  respirator  to  avert.  Thirdly,  they  cause 
a  constant  re-inhaling  of  the  same  air  mixed  with  much 
foul   matter,  which  becomes   accumulated  in    the  instru- 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREA  THING.  -  107 

ment.  Certainly  if  employed  they  should  be  of  the 
cheapest  kind,  so  that  there  will  be  less  hesitation  in  their 
destruction  when  soiled.  Better  than  a  respirator  is  the 
veil  invented  by  Mr.  Lennox  Browne,  and  sold  by  Messrs. 
Marshall  8c  Snelgrove,  which,  having  a  special  reduplica- 
tion of  the  gauze  as  it  falls  over  both  mouth,  nostrils,  and 
ears,  fulfils  the  purpose  desired  with  avoidance  of  most  of 
the  dangers  just  detailed.  Of  course  these  can  only  be 
worn  by  ladies.  Our  opinion  is  that  respirators  should  not 
be  necessary  for  men  if  they  did  not  shave  and  learned 
to  breathe  through  the  proper  passages. 

We  have  both  for  many  years  been  enforcing  the 
importance  of  filling  the  chest  primarily  at  its  base  by 
descent  of  the  midriff,  circumferentially  by  rib  expansion, 
and  only  to  the  very  slightest  degree  and  in  very  excep- 
tional circumstances  by  any  elevation  whatever  of  the  collar- 
bone. It  has  been,  therefore,  a  subject  of  great  regret  to 
us  that  quite  recently,  just  as  the  importance  of  these  rules 
was  becoming  recognised,  certain  teachers,  some  of  very 
high  attainments  in  other  respects,  have  endeavoured,  and 
really  it  would  seem  for  the  sake  of  saying  something  new, 
to  prove  otherwise.  One  writer,  whose  arguments  are  so 
well  put  as  to  read  amazingly  like  sense  to  the  uninitiated, 
endeavours  to  justify  collar-bone  breathing  by  reference 
to  the  act  of  inspiration  as  practised  for  a  sudden  and 
violent  expiratory  effort,  as  of  blowing  out  a  candle, 
forgetting  that  in  singing  the  air  should  be  expelled  so 
gradually  that  the  flame  of  a  candle  should  not  be  moved, 
and  in  like  manner  that  exaggerated  in-breathing  is 
equally  undesirable.  The  fact  may  once  more  be  briefly 
insisted  on,  that  breathing  by  descent  of  the  diaphragm 
means  that  method  which  is  most  natural  in  all  positions 
of  the  body,  even  in  that  in  which  the  lungs  have  the 


io8  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

smallest  capacity,  that  is,  when  lying  on  the  back.  In 
this  method  of  taking  in  the  breath  there  is  less  resistance 
of  the  muscles  which  govern  its  exit,  and  when  the 
diaphragm  ^  has  descended,  and  the  floating  ribs  have 
expanded,  the  upper  ribs  follow  almost  as  a  natural 
sequence  of  the  same  respiratory  act.  If  the  respiration 
be  extended  to  elevation  of  the  collar-bones  and  shoulder- 
blades,  not  only  is  there  very  little  gain  in  lung  volume, 
but  there  ensues  very  considerable  muscular  fatigue, 
because  there  is  the  superincumbent  weight  of  the  shoulder- 
blades  and  arms  on  the  small  upper  ribs,  and  because  the 
muscles  attached  in  this  region  have  other  functions  than 
that  of  breathing.  It  also  causes  congestion  of  the  vessels 
of  the  neck  and  throat.  In  reaction  from  this  straining, 
the  muscles  controlling  the  exit  of  the  breath  do  not  act 
with  regularity  or  steadiness ;  and  thus  we  see  that  this 
fault  in  breathing  is  at  the  root  of  gasping,  jerking,  and 
fatigue  in  inspiration,  and  of  unevenness,  trembling,  and 
undue  vibration  in  the  production  and  emission  of  vocal 
tone.  To  correct  these  faults  an  efibrt  is  made  by  the 
muscles  in  the  pharynx,  which  in  turn  leads  to  congestion 
and  relaxation  of  that  part. 

Some  may  enquire  why  the  method  of  filHng  the  lungs 
by  elevating  the  collar-bones  and  shoulder-blades  should 
be  deprecated,  if  there  is  any  power  to  fill  them  by  exer- 
tion of  the  connecting  muscles.  We  answer  that  this 
kind  of  inspiration  is  only  employed  by  instinct  of  nature 
when,  from  disease,  midriff  or  costal  breathing  is  impeded, 
and  that  the  fact  of  a  patient  breathing  in  this  manner  is 
noted  by  a  physician  as  a  grave  symptom,  because  it 
indicates  mischief  of  a  vital  nature  in  lungs,  heart,  or  other 
important  organs. 

Nothing  is  more  detrimental  to  free  expansion  of  the 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREA  THING,  109 

chest  than  corset-wearing  of  the  form  and  material  now 
manufactured,  even  if  not  tightly  laced.  All  sensible 
people  begin  to  admit  this  fact,  which,  as  we  shall  relate 
presently,  is  susceptible  of  demonstration.  But  if  the 
right  method  of  breathing  were  by  upward  elevation, 
with  the  consequent  safe  submission  to  the  slight  inward 
movement  which  results  from  the  simple  drawing  out 
or  lengthening  of  the  upper  frame,  confinement  of  the 
lower  chest  by  stays  would  be  innocuous.  That  corsets, 
as  usually  worn,  are  injurious  may  be  seen  by  comparison 
of  PL  XVIII.,  in  which  the  ribs  are  delineated  as  in  an 
unconfined  or  natural  chest,  and  in  PL  XIX.,  the  outline 
of  which  is  multiplied  by  the  thousand  in  fashion  plates, 
and  again  in  Pis.  XX.  and  XXL,  in  which  the  portion 
of  the  lungs  and  other  important  organs  are  contrasted  as 
in  the  natural  and  in  the  constricted  cavities. 

Mr.  Bernard  Roth,  to  whom  we  owe  the  idea  of  the  two 
last  figures,  very  well  explains  the  injurious  effects  of  the 
corset,  and  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  him  at  length. 
(* Dress:  its  Sanitary  Aspect.'  Churchill,  London,  1880, 
pp.  8  to  1 1.)  "  The  lower  ribs  which  are  least  supported  in 
front  are  precisely  those  which  are  influenced  by  anything 
tight  about  the  waist ;  thus  close-fitting,  unyielding  stays^ 
as  generally  worn,  gradually  compress  the  yielding  lower 
ribs  more  and  more,  till  their  anterior  extremities,  instead 
of  being  far  apart,  meet  almost  or  quite  in  the  middle  line. 
(Compare  PL  XVIII.  with  PL  XIX.)  This  deformity 
occurs  so  gradually  during  years  of  growth,  that  the  wearer 
is  generally  quite  unconscious  of  having  disfigured  herself, 
and  I  have  never  yet  met  with  a  lady  who  owned  to  having 
a  tight  pair  of  stays.  *  I  can  put  my  whole  hand  inside,'  is 
the  usual  reply  when  I  find  fault  with  a  patient.  This  is 
generally  quite  true  ;    for,  by  drawing  in   the  abdominal 


ito 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


muscles  which  act  upon  the  anterior  extremities  of  the 
ribs,  by  raising  the  diaphragm,  and  by  shghtly  incHning 
the  body  forwards  the  girth  of  the  trunk  can  be  still  further 
diminished.     The  real  test  is  to  have  the  stays  opened,  and 


XVIII.— Framework  of  Chest.— Natural  Waist.    {Adapted from 
Professor  Flower  s  *  Fashion  and  Deformity.^) 

all  other  constricting  bands  loosened,  and  to  request  the 
patient  to  breathe  deeply  and  slowly  a  few  times,  with  the 
arms  directed  upwards  if  necessary,  and  then  to  ask  her  to 
fasten  the  outer  dress  alone  while  holding  the  body  as  erect 
as  possible.     It  is  generally  impossible  to  bring  the  dress 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREA  THING.  1 1 1 

together  after  such  an  experiment,  because  the  chest, 
having  at  last  a  chance  of  freedom,  has  expanded  a  Httle 
and  refuses  to  be  put  back  into  its  narrow  prison.  This 
pressing  inward  of  the  ribs,  which  become  in  time  per- 


XIX. — Framework  of  Chest.— Deformed  Waist.     {Adapted  from 
Professor  Flower  s  '  Fashion  and  Deformity.'') 

manently  deformed,  causes  necessarily  a  very  great  dimi- 
nution in  the  size  of  the  chest  and  abdominal  cavities. 
(Compare  again  Plates  XVIII.  and  XIX.,  also  XX. 
and  XXL)  One  very  serious  effect  of  this  is  that  the 
bases,    or    lower    parts    of  the    lungs,    do    not    perform 


112 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


their  functions  properly,  for  there  the  chest  walls  can 
hardly  move  at  all  during  respiration,  in  addition  to 
their  volume  being  much  diminished ;  the  upper  halves 
of  the   lungs   have   consequently  to  do   more  than  their 


XX.— Natural  Position  of  Organs  in  unconfined  Chest. 
{Adapted from  Roth.) 

proper  share  of  work."  A  writer  in  Knowledge^  October 
13,  1882,  naively  uses  this  fact  as  an  argument  in  favour 
of  the  "well-appUed  corset,"  stating  that  it  ''leaves  the 
upper  part  of  the  chest  perfectly   free,  and  develops  the 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREATHING. 


113 


capacity  of  the  lungs  in  that  situation — the  most  important 
situation,  by-the-bye,  especially  in  the  female  sex.  Tuber- 
cular consumption  usually  attacks  the  apices  of  the  lungs, 
a  part  far  removed  from  the  pressure  of  a  corset,  however 


XXI. 


-Distorted  Position  of  Organs  in  Body  Deformed  by  Stays. 
{Adapted from  Roth.) 


tight — in  fact  the  tighter  the  corset  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  chest,  the  greater  amount  of  work  and  expansion  in 
the  upper  part,  but  this  would  not  lead  to  consumption." 
Such  an  argument  will  not  bear  a  moment's  considera- 


114  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

tion>  since  overuse  of  one  portion  of  the  lung  and  impeded 
action  of  the  other  must  necessarily  be  followed  by  disease 
in  both  directions.  Returning  to  Mr.  Roth's  argument, 
that  writer  continues :  "  At  the  same  time  the  respiratory 
action  of  the  diaphragm  is  obstructed  not  only  by  the 
reduced  extent  of  its  attachment  to  the  ribs,  but  also  from 
the  compression  of  the  abdomen.  This  insufficiency  of 
respiratory  power  and  diminution  in  the  size  of  the  lungs 
can  account  for  many  a  serious  illness,  the  way  for  which 
was  prepared  by  deficient  oxygenation  of  the  blood ; 
besides,  all  the  above-mentioned  abdominal  organs  are 
displaced  downwards,  because  there  is  no  longer  any  room 
for  them  at  the  so-called  '  elegant '  waist ;  the  liver  reaches 
down  to  the  hips  (pelvis),  whereas  in  its  natural  position 
it  should  hardly  project  beyond  the  margins  of  the  chest 
cavity.  (Compare  Pis.  XX.  and  XXI.)  This  displace- 
ment of  and  pressure  on  these  important  organs  offer 
a  serious  obstacle  to  the  proper  carrying  out  of  their 
special  functions,  hence  indigestion,  congestion  of  the  liver, 
and  similar  troubles.  The  deplorably  large  percentage  of 
women  who  have  some  displacement  or  affection  of  the 
womb  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  this  pernicious  habit  of  tight- 
lacing,  which  is  more  general  than  may  be  supposed  by 
any  one  who  has  not  paid  special  attention  to  this  subject. 

"The  Lancet  whites,  on  January  lo,  1880: — 'The 
notion  of  "improving"  nature  by  forcing  the  feet  into 
tight  boots,  and  the  divers  other  devices  with  which  fashion 
beguiles  the  love  of  personal  embellishment  are  sufficiently 
monstrous,  but  the  audacity  of  attempting  to  compress 
the  trunk,  which  contains  the  central  organs  of  life,  for 
the  sake  of  appearances,  surpasses  belief.  .  .  .  Perhaps 
the  recent  death  from  tight-lacing,  in  v^hich  the  heart  was 
found   to  be   so  impeded  in  its  action  as  to  render  life 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREA  THING.  115 

impracticable,  may  have  some  deterrent  effect,  but  we 
doubt  it.  Fashion  will  prevail,  and  wasp-like  waists  will 
be  cultivated  in  defiance  of  nature  and  art/ 

'''  In  addition  to  the  injurious  effects  already  mentioned 
tight  stays  are  a  common  cause  of  so-called  'weak*  spine, 
due  to  weakness  of  the  muscles  of  the  back.  It  is  well 
known  in  physiology  that  for  a  muscle  to  remain  in  a 
healthy  condition  it  must  be  fulfilling  the  functions  proper 
to  it,  namely,  of  being  constantly  alternately  contracted 
and  relaxed.  When  muscles  are  prevented  from  being 
thus  exercised  they  invariably  waste.  Any  one  who  has 
had  either  one  of  the  long  bones  of  the  upper  or  lower 
extremities  broken,  or  some  local  injury  or  disease  which 
has  necessitated  complete  fixation  of  the  limb  in  splints 
for  six  weeks  or  longer,  will  remember  how  all  the  muscles 
of  the  quiescent  limb  wasted,  and  how  it  took  some  time 
to  restore  the  previous  muscular  power.  A  tightly-laced 
pair  of  stays  acts  precisely  as  a  splint  to  the  trunk,  and 
prevents  or  greatly  impedes  the  action  of  the  chief  back 
muscles,  which  therefore  become  weakened.  The  unfortu- 
nate wearer  feels  her  spine  weaken,  thinks  she  wants  more 
support,  so  laces  herself  still  tighter ;  she  no  doubt  does 
get  some  support  in  this  way,  but  at  what  a  terrible  cost  ? 
everything  embraced  by  those  tight  stays  is  fearfully  com- 
pressed ;  and  it  has  always  been  an  anatomical  enigma  to 
me  to  conceive  how  the  numerous  organs,  which  I  know 
to  be  there,  can  possibly  exist  in  some  ladies,  whose  bodies 
are  not  inaptly  compared  to  those  of  wasps. 

"  I  do  not  say  that  stays  should  necessarily  be  given  up 
altogether,  although  many  women  would  enjoy  far  better 
health  if  they  were.  Stays  are,  no  doubt,  of  some  use  in 
supporting  the  bust  of  the  adult  woman  " — provided  they 
have  been  educated  to  their  use,  but  not  by  any  means 

I  2 


ii6  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

necessarily  if  they  have  never  been  worn  in  childhood — 
"  but  this  can  be  easily  effected  without  pressing  upon  the 
lower  ribs,  and  without  obstructing  the  respiratory  move- 
ments. Rational  stays  should  be  made  of  some  yielding 
material  with  narrow  strips  of  elastic  webbing  let  in  from 
above  down  on  the  sides  ;  and  the  fewer  the  pieces  of 
whalebone,  and  the  smaller  they  are,  the  better." 

Ladies  inclined  to  embonpoint  who  have  always  worn 
stays  will  find  the  material  called  "  single  coutil,"  or  sateen, 
a  very  suitable  one  from  which  to  make  hygienic  corsets. 
The  form  should  be  that  of  a  "  slip-bodice "  cut  low, 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  broad  straps  or  bands 
over  the  shoulders.  This  corset  or  bodice  should  fasten 
in  front  only  with  buttons,  or  with  the  usual  fastenings, 
but  there  should  be  no  laces  ;  it  should  come  well  down 
over  the  hips,  about  as  low  as  ordinary  stays.  Strips  of 
thin  elastic  webbing,  two  inches  wide,  should  be  inserted 
at  each  side  under  the  arm.  We  particularly  emphasize 
that  the  webbing  should  be  thin.  Some  descriptions  are 
so  stout  as  to  require  considerable  muscular  effort  to 
expand  them,  and  would  render  the  corset  harmful  to  the 
wearer  by  impeding  the  circulation.  One  piece  of  whale- 
bone, or  of  the  lightest-made  flexible  steel,  should  be  placed 
on  each  side  of  the  spinal  ridge — that  is,  along  the  middle 
of  the  back — not  over  it^  there  being  an  interval  of  an 
inch  and  a  half  between  the  two  pieces — while  another 
similar  piece  on  either  side  of  the  fastenings  will  be 
sufficient  to  keep  the  corset  from  creasing.  But  there 
should  be  no  stiffening  material  inserted  which  would  press 
against  the  curved  part  of  the  ribs,  as  that  would,  of  course, 
interfere  with  their  lateral  expansion  ;  and  any  additional 
aid  to  the  "  set "  of  the  garment  can  be  efficiently  gained 
by    "  cordings."       On    to    the    lower    edge    of  the   corset 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREA  THING.  1 17 

should  be  sewed  flat  buttons,  at  equal  distances,  and 
corresponding  button-holes  be  made  in  all  under  garments 
by  which  they  may  be  suspended  from  the  corset,  that  is 
from  the  hips,  instead  of  being  fastened  above  them  by 
bands  and  strings  around  the  waist.  For  children  and 
well-formed  girls  and  women  "coutil"  is  too  heavy  a 
material,  and  a  very  light  twill,  as  employed  for  summer 
stays,  simply  corded,  may  be  substituted.  For  ladies  of 
slender  figure,  corsets  made  of  the  shape  known  as  "  riding 
stays,"  but  of  the  material  and  fashion  we  have  detailed, 
will  be  found  to  answer  every  requisite.  Thin  whale- 
bone or  equally  thin  steel  can,  if  desired,  be  inserted  in 
the  front  of  the  dress  on  each  side  of  the  fastening  itself 
to  keep  it  straight,  but  is  not  necessary  as  a  means  of 
"  support."  Should  support  be  really  needed  for  any  spinal 
weakness  or  incipient  deformity  the  pieces  already  de- 
scribed on  each  side  of  the  spinal  ridge — again  not  over  it 
— will  be  found  sufficient.  Hygienic  corsets,  exactly  of 
the  kind  we  describe,  can  be  obtained  from  Mr.  Pratt  of 
Oxford  Street,  or  of  Messrs.  Ward  &  Co.  of  Ilkley,  both  of 
whom  have  made  some  under  our  express  supervision.  The 
waist  and  chest  measure  should  be  taken  while  the  lady  or 
child  to  be  fitted  is  standing  with  head,  shoulder-blades, 
and  heels  all  touching  a  wall ;  the  body  being  held  very 
erect,  and  the  tips  of  the  fingers  of  each  hand  placed  as 
far  on  the  back  of  the  shoulders  as  possible.  Every  female 
should  be  able  to  fasten  her  under-bodices  and  dresses 
while  standing  erect  against  a  wall.  If  once  properly  fitted, 
there  is  no  rational  excuse  for  tightening  or  for  varying 
the  calibre  of  a  corset. 

If  we  can  succeed  in  persuading  mothers  to  adopt  this 
sort  of  corset  for  their  children,  the  gain  in  beauty  of 
figure  and  graceful  bearing  will  be  immense.     It  is  im- 


ii8  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

possible  for  the  stiffly-corseted  girl  to  be  other  than 
inelegant  and  ungraceful  in  her  movements.  Her  im- 
prisoned waist,  with  its  flabby  muscles,  has  no  chance  of 
performing  beautiful  undulatory  movements.  In  the 
ball-room  the  ungraceful  motions  of  our  stifF-figured 
ladies  are  bad  enough;  there  is  no  possibility  for  poetry 
of  motion;  but  nowhere  is  this  more  ludicrously,  and  to 
the  thoughtful,  painfully  manifest  than  in  the  tennis- 
court.  Let  any  one  watch  the  movements  of  ladies  as 
compared  with  those  of  male  players,  and  the  absolute 
ugliness  of  the  female  figure  with  its  stifle,  unyielding, 
deformed,  round  waist  will  at  once  be  seen.  Ladies  can 
only  bend  the  body  from  the  hip  joint.  All  that  wonder- 
fully contrived  set  of  hinges,  with  their  connected  muscles, 
in  the  elastic  column  of  the  spine  is  unable  to  act  from 
the  shoulders  downwards  ;  and  their  figures  remind  one  of 
the  old-fashioned,  wooden  Dutch  doll. 

Another  point  in  favour  of  the  abandonment  of  tightly-fit- 
ting corsets,  and  one  which  may  perhaps  have  influence  with 
our  lady  readers,  is  the  fact  that  their  use  tends  to  produce 
obesity.     Our  opinion  on  this  point  is  confirmed  by  others. 

In  a  letter  headed  "  Stays  and  Fat,"  which  appeared  in 
Knowledge  for  6th  April  last,  Mr.  Mattieu  Williams 
says,  "  There  is  one  horror  which  no  lady  can  bear  to 
contemplate,  viz.,  fat.  What  is  fat  ?  It  is  an  accumu- 
lation of  unburnt  body-fuel.  How  can  we  get  rid  of  it 
when  accumulated  in  excess  ?  Simply  by  burning  it  away 
— this  burning  being  done  by  means  of  the  oxygen  in- 
haled by  the  lungs.  If,  as  Mr.  Lennox  Browne  has  shewn, 
a  lady  with  normal  lung  capacity  of  125  cubic  inches, 
reduces  this  to  78  inches  by  means  of  her  stays,  and  attains 
118  inches  all  at  once  on  leaving  them  off,  it  is  certain  that 
her  prospects  of  becoming  fat  and  flabby,  as  she  advances 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREA  THING.  1 19 

towards  middle  age,  are  greatly  increased  by  tight-lacing 
and  the  consequent  suppression  of  natural  respiration." 

Hygienic  stays,  such  as  we  have  described,  allow  of  the 
"  proper  respiratory  movements  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
chest,  and  yet  will  not  produce  deformity,  nor  favour  the 
abnormal  accumulation  of  fat,  although  fitting  the  waist 
sufficiently  well  to  please  the  dressmakers.  Modern  taste  is 
unfortunately  so  vitiated  that  when  a  woman  tries  to  avoid 
deforming  her  body,  and  possesses  a  natural  waist,  unless  she 
is  very  thin,  remarks  are  at  once  made  about  her  clumsy 
figure,  and  these  as  frequently  by  men  as  by  the  deformed 
of  her  own  sex.  Indeed,  this  degraded  taste  for  acquir- 
ing deformed  waists  would  seem  to  have  even  infected  men, 
if  the  expensive  advertisements  of  men's  corsets  to  be  seen 
in  so  many  newspapers  are  profitable  to  the  advertisers." 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  remarks  that  the  idea 
of  "  support "  being  necessary  to  the  figure  is  absolutely 
unfounded.  The  all-wise  Creator  has  given  to  the  female 
as  many  muscles  as  to  the  male.  No  one  dreams  of 
suggesting  that  a  man  or  a  boy  requires  stays  "  to  keep 
him  up  "  as  the  phrase  goes  ;  why  then  should  girls  and 
women  ?  From  actual  knowledge  we  can  testify  that  no 
girl  who  has  ne^er  worn  corsets  feels  the  need  of  a 
"  support."  On  the  point  of  warmth  alone  stays  have 
an  advantage ;  but  it  is  of  a  very  slight  character,  and  one 
that  can  be  easily,  and  even  better,  supplied  by  a  less  tight 
and  rigid  garment,  which  would  also  cover  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  chest  and  back.  And  here  let  us  caution  ladies 
against  the  erroneous  notion  that  if  only  their  chests  are 
well  protected  from  cold  they  will  take  no  harm.  Extra 
warmth  is  necessary  at  the  back,  over  the  situation  of  the 
chain  of  nerves  known  as  the  sympathetic,  whose  purpose  it 
is  to  regulate  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  various  organs 


I20  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

of  respiration  and  digestion,  and  to  keep  those  organs  in 
co-ordination.  It  is  undoubtedly  by  draughts  on  the 
back  of  the  body,  whether  the  neck,  chest,  or  loins,  that 
colds,  and  inflammations  due  to  colds,  are  most  frequently 
taken.  And  that  such  is  the  case  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  sympathetic  nerves  which  lie  along  the  side  of 
the  spinal  column  are,  when  attacked  by  cold,  impaired 
in  their  power  of  control  over  the  circulation. 

By  the  spirometer  it  has  been  demonstrated  as  the  result 
of  experiments  on  thousands  of  individuals  of  the  male 
sex  in  a  state  of  health,  and  of  various  occupations,  that 
the  lungs  are  capable  of  containing  a  varying  amount  of 
air  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  subject,  the  ratio 
being  a  difference  of  about  lo  cubic  inches  for  every  inch  of 
height  between  5  and  6  feet.  Above  that  limit  the  additional 
capacity  diminishes  with  increased  stature.  This  measure- 
ment holds  good  in  subjects  between  the  ages  of  15  and 
55,  the  vital  capacity  being  at  its  maximum  between  the 
ages  of  30  and  35  years,  and  is  only  further  aflTected  by  the 
weight  of  the  individual,  and  that  not  unless  the  corpulence 
be  really  excessive.  A  man  in  health,  of  the  height  of  5 
feet  7  to  5  feet  8  inches,  should  breathe  an  average  of  250 
cubic  inches  of  air.  Such  a  man  should  weigh  about 
156  pounds;  but  he  may  weigh  10  or  12  pounds  more 
without  aflfecting  his  breathing  powers.  This  and  other 
allowances  may  be  made  which  would  account  for  varia- 
tions to  the  extent  of  16  per  cent.,  or  a  diminution  of 
about  38  to  40  cubic  inches ;  below  this  standard  the 
physician  will  suspect  disease.  As  a  matter  of  daily  ex- 
perience, however,  we  find  many  who  cannot  breathe  even 
this  minimum  health-volume,  because  they  have  not 
understood  how  to  fill  their  lungs  for  any  sustained 
muscular  effbrt,  such  as   voice-use  implies   and   demands. 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREA  THING.  121 

We  also  find  that,  by  practice,  the  average  mean  vital 
volume  can  be  very  considerably  increased,  even  to  half 
as  much  again.  Thus  it  can  be  demonstrated  that 
breathing  practice,  in  other  words,  education  on  a  right 
method  of  the  motor  power  of  voice-users,  is  beneficial  to 
the  general  health. 

Until  quite  recently  no  experiments  have  been  made  in 
any  large  numbers  on  females,  and  a  deduction  of  ;},2>  P^^ 
cent,  has  been  made  for  the  "  weaker  sex."  We  have  for 
many  years  been  in  the  habit  of  making  an  allowance  of  only 
25  per  cent,  for  females ;  and  more  recent  experience  leads 
us  to  believe  that  even  this  difiTerence  is  greater  than  would  be 
justified  by  fact  in  normal  subjects  undeformed  by  fashion."^ 
That  the  heavy  clothing  of  ladies  makes  a  great  difiTerence 
in  their  respiratory  power  may  be  proved  by  trying  it  first 
when  the  subject  has  on  her  shoulders  the  heavy  velvet 
bugle-covered  or  seal-skin  mantle,  and  then  without  it. 
There  will  always  be  a  gain  in  the  latter  case  of  ten  or 
fifteen  inches  ;  but  if  the  experiment  be  made,  even 
where  to  the  male  eye  the  charge  of  light  lacing  cannot  be 
made,  but  when  the  corset  is  of  unyielding  material,  there 
will  be  almost  uniformly  a  diff'erence  of  one-third,  and  an 
immediate  regain  of  power  almost  to  the  full  average 
standard  when  the  corset  is  removed.  This  we  have  tried 
repeatedly,  and  we  have  each  published  a  case  in  Know- 
ledge confirmatory  of  our  opinion.  In  the  one  a  young 
lady  who,  by  her  height,  should,  according  to  Hutchinson's 
Tables  (*  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,'  vol.  xxix. 
London,  1846),  breathe  145  cubic  inches,  was  able  with 
difficulty  to  exhale  100  ;  but  on  removal  of  her  stays 
at   once   and   with   ease  blew    140  cubic  inches  into  the 

*  See   Table   kindly  prepared   specially   for   this  work  by   Mr.    Charles 
Roberts,  F.R.C.S.,  on  page  123. 


122  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

spirometer.  Another  lady,  less  than  five  feet  high, 
should  have  breathed  about  120  cubic  inches.  Before  the 
removal  of  her  corsets  she  managed,  after  several  violent 
efforts,  to  breathe  75  inches  only,  but  afterwards_,  at  the  first 
attempt,  she  breathed  118  inches.  She  discontinued  the  use 
of  these  stays,  and  took  to  others  without  whalebone  or  steel, 
and  continued  to  maintain  this  gain  in  her  chest  expansion. 

We  now  add  two  other  cases  illustrative  of  the  fuller 
lung  capacity  in  young  ladies  who  do  not  wear  corsets. 

The  first  lady  should,  by  her  height  and  age  (26),  have 
a  mean  breathing  capacity  of  148  cubic  inches.  Pier 
actual  breathing  power  is  156,  or  8  cubic  inches  above  her 
mean.  She  was  forced,  when  a  child,  to  wear  closely 
fitting  corsets,  but  discontinued  them  when  about  thirteen 
or  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  has  never  since  resumed  them. 

The  second  case  is  that  of  a  child  between  twelve  and 
thirteen,  having  a  constitutional  predisposition  to  consump- 
tion. Her  parents,  recognising  the  necessity  for  hygienic 
care,  have  scrupulously  avoided  any  form  of  dress  which 
would  impede  the  full  and  healthy  development  of  the 
vital  organs.  Her  mean  breathing  power,  if  she  were  over 
fifteen  years  of  age  instead  of  being  under  thirteen,  should 
be  118  cubic  inches,  but  her  actual  lung  capacity  is  even 
now  130,  or  12  cubic  inches  above  her  mean.  Humanly 
speaking,  her  parents  have,  by  their  care  in  rearing  this 
delicate  girl,  preserved  her  from  that  dire  scourge  of  two- 
thirds  of  our  race — "  consumption." 

Let  any  speaker  or  singer  ask  himself  whether  the 
acquisition  of  such  an  amount  of  breath  power  over  that 
which  he  is  now  habitually  able  to  control  is  not  worth 
trying  for.  So  surely  as  a  locomotive  will  come  to  a 
standstill  if  there  be  not  a  sufficient  supply  of  fuel  to 
generate  the  motive  power — "  steam,"  so  surely  will  a  singer 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREATHING. 


123 


Table  shewing  the  average  Height,  Weight,  Breathing  Capacity, 

Chest-girth,  and  Strength,  of  adult  Males  and  Females  in 

England. — Drawn  up  by  Charles  Roberts,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S., 

From  data  collected  by  the  Anthropometric  Committee  of  the 

British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 


Males. 

Height 
with- 
out 
shoes. 

Females. 

Strength 
of  arm  as 
in  draw- 
ing a 
bow* 

Chest 

girth 
after  ex- 
piration, f 

Weight, 

including 

clothes.J 

Breath 

ing 

capa- 

city.$ 

Breath- 
ing 
capa- 
city. $ 

Weight, 
including 
clothes.J 

Chest 

girth 

below 

breasts. 

Strength 
of  arm  as 
in  draw- 
ing a 
bow. 

lbs. 

85-1 

83*9 
82-7 

81-5 
80-3 
79*2 
78-0 
76-8 
75-6 
74-4 
73*3 
72-1 

70-9/ 
69-7/ 
68-^ 

inches. 

38-9 
38-4 

37-8 
37*3 
36-7 
36-2 

35*7 
35*1 
34'6 
34*o 
33-5 
33-0 
32-4 
\3i-9 

lbs. 

165-6 

163-3 
161-O 

158-7 
156-4 
154-1 
I5I-8 

149*5 
147-2 

144-9 
142-6 

140-3 
138-0 

135*7 
133*4 

Cubic 
inches. 

290 
280 
270 
260 
250 
240 
230 
220 
210 
200 
190 
180 
170 
160 
150 

inches. 
72 
71 
70 
69 

68 

67 
66 

64 
63 
62 
61 
60 

59 
58 

Cubic 
inches. 

238 
230 
221 

213 
204 

t 

179 
170 
162 
153 
145 

128 
119 

lbs. 
141 -I 

139*1 
137*2 
135*2 
133*3 
131*3 

T29-4 

127-4 
125-4 
123-5 

I2I-5 

II9-6 
117-6 
II5-6 

113*7 

inches. 

32-7 
32-2 

31*7 
31-2 
30-8 

30-4 
30-0 
29-5 
29-0 

28-5 
28-1 
27-6 
27-2 
26-6 
26-1 

lbs. 

5I-I 

50-4 

49*7 
49-0 

48-3 
47-6 
46-8 
46-1 
45*4 
44*7 
44-0 

43-3 
42*6 
41-9 
41-2 

*  Taken  by  Herbert  and  Son's  spring  balance  arm-testing  machine. 

•f*  Military  measurement.     Tape  round  chest  at  nipples :  arms  hanging  loosely  by  the  side  :  let  the 
patient  count  from  one  to  ten  and  then  read  off  the  measurement. 
X  The  average  weight  of  indoor  clothes,  including  the  shoes,  is  for  the  professional  class  8  lbs. 

,,  „  „  „  „  ,,  ,,  working  „  10  lbs. 

Average  for  men  9  lbs. 

The  average  weight  of  a  woman's  dress  has  not  been  accurately  ascertained,  but  it  is  among  female 
shop  assistants  and  school  teachers  about  7  lbs.  We  are  very  much  in  want  of  information  as  to  the 
weight  of  ladies'  dresses.     The  average  is  probably  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  male  working  class. 

$  Breathing  Capacity  of  Males. — Hutchinson's  table,  published  in  1846,  gives  a  difference  of  only 
8  cubic  inches  for  each  inch  of  height.  The  above  table  gives  a  difference  of  10  inches  for  each  inch 
of  height,  and  a  relative  increase  of  upwards  of  20  cubic  inches  as  compared  with  Hutchinson.  These 
differences  are  very  probably  the  result  of  the  greater  accuracy  of  the  instruments  now  employed. 

Breathing  Capacity  of  Females  gives  in  this  table  an  average  decrease  of  power,  as  compared  with 
males,  of  only  20  per  cent.,  instead  of  33  per  cent,  as  estimated  by  Hutchinson.  Thus,  having  made 
allowance  for  the  relative  increase  granted  by  us  for  men,  a  female  at  66  inches,  who  would  have  breathed 
142  cubic  inches  according  to  the  old  table,  is  now  found  to  have  a  vital  capacity  of  187  cubic  inches. 


( 


124  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

or  speaker  ultimately  break  down  in  voice,  and  perhaps  in 
health,  if  he  be  unable  to  command  a  sufficient  supply  of, 
and  control  over,  his  motor  power — breath. 

There  are  many  other  questions  connected  with  costume 
affecting  the  respiration ;  as,  for  instance,  the  wearing  of 
constricting  collars  around  the  neck,  a  fault  very  fashion- 
able in  the  present  day.  There  is  no  doubt  also  that  the 
heavy  and  multiplied  articles  of  clothing  worn  around  the 
waist  by  females,  tightly  fitting  abdominal  belts  and  unduly 
braced  suspenders  in  men,  all  act  as  weights  impeding  the 
power  of  chest  expansion. 

Posture  has  a  remarkable  influence  on  the  respiration. 
The  spirometer  shows  the  vital  volume  to  be  greatest  in  the 
erect,  less  in  the  sitting,  and  least  in  the  recumbent 
positions.  Since,  however,  many  are  required  to  use  the 
voice  in  the  sitting  posture,  as  when  accompanying  them- 
selves at  the  piano,  and  that  the  prone  or  semi-prone 
position  is  also  necessary  on  occasion  in  opera,  we 
advise  practice  in  all  these  attitudes.  Exercise  in  the 
recumbent  posture  can  with  advantage  be  practised  at 
early  morning  before  rising  from  bed  when  the  body  is 
unencumbered  with  clothing,  and  again  on  rising,  with 
arms  bent  at  right  angles  to  the  body  so  as  to  fix  the 
shoulder-blades  well  back.  Practice  in  the  sitting  posture 
should  be  made  with  the  arms  brought  back  over  the 
chair  rail,  which  also  ensures  fixture  of  the  collar-bones 
and  shoulder-blades. 

In  regard  to  posture,  allusion  may  be  made  to  the  habit 
of  short-sighted  persons  of  stooping  down  to  their  music 
on  a  piano  to  read  their  part,  instead  of  wearing  glasses 
and  holding  their  music  well  before  them  ;  or,  again,  to 
the  clergyman,  who  pursues  a  similar  plan  at  the  desk,  or  if 
he  does  hold  his  book  up,  presses  it  against  the  lower  part  of 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  BREA  THING.  125 

the  chest  to  the  very  serious  diminution  of  its  expansive 
power,  and  a  considerable  addition  to  its  resistance. 

It  is  not  out  of  place  here  to  mention  that  respiratory 
exercises,  and  subsequently  lessons  in  reading,  reciting, 
and  singing  are  oftentimes  of  the  greatest  use  in  strength- 
ening a  weak  chest;  and  indeed,  it  is  not  too  much  to 
say,  in  arresting  consumption.  We  have  no  doubt,  from 
our  experience  of  the  improvement  to  be  gained  in  respira- 
tory power  by  means  of  such  exercises,  as  demonstrated 
with  the  spirometer,  that  it  would  be  very  desirable  and 
often  highly  beneficial  to  pursue  a  regular  course  of  lung- 
gymnastics,  modified  according  to  each  patient's  individual 
need,  at  various  health  resorts,  such  as  Davos-am-Platz, 
&c.  The  subject  is  one  which  is  receiving  a  consider- 
able share  of  attention  in  Germany,  and  but  little  at 
present  in  this  country.  It  has  been  well  said,  and  with- 
out exaggeration,  that  "the  condition  of  the  air  which 
we  breathe  becomes  only  significant  through  the  breathing 
gymnastics.  We  send  the  sick  to  healthy  localities,  but 
what  use  is  it  when  the  fresh  air  is  not  permitted  to 
penetrate  sufficiently  in  and  through  the  lungs.  Air  alone 
does  not  expand  the  lungs,  and  the  benefit  derived  from 
mechanical  expansion  may  outweigh  even  the  advantages 
of  a  healthy  locality." 

Thus  even  in  our  own  country,  by  means  of  properly 
directed  respiratory  gymnastics  in  well-ventilated  rooms, 
much  may  be  done  towards  the  cure  of  lung  complaints, 
especially  in  the  early  stages ;  and  those  in  whom  there  is 
a  consumptive  or  asthmatic  diathesis  would  benefit  greatly 
by  such  practice.  Especially  should  the  heads  of  families 
in  whom  such  predisposition  exists  see  that  their  children 
are  trained  from  an  early  age  to  the  use  of  these  lung 
gymnastics. 


126  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  method  of  inflation  and 
freedom  from  constriction  of  clothing  comes  the  question 
of  digestion  as  aflTecting  free  lung  play.  While  on  the  one 
hand  singing  on  an  actually  empty  stomach  will  be  im- 
perfect on  account  of  enfeebled  muscular  action  due  to 
want  of  nutrition  ;  equally,  on  the  other  hand,  the  food 
must  have  been  at  least  partially  digested  so  that  the 
stomach  may  not  be  distended  by  the  food  taken  and  the 
gases  generated  during  the  digestive  process,  but  may  have 
resumed  its  normal  size.  This  subject  will  be  treated 
more  at  length  when  we  consider  the  rules  for  a  voice- 
user's  daily  living. 


IL— THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  THE  VIBRATING 

ELEMENT— THE  LARYNX  AND  THE  VOCAL 

LIGAMENTS. 

Having  enforced  at  some  length  our  belief  that  control 
of  the  motor  element  is  at  the  foundation  of  all  good  voice 
production,  we  go  further  and  say  that,  from  the  medical 
point  pf  view,  if  respiration  be  properly  practised  and  con- 
trolled, trouble  in  producing  pure  vocal  tone  in  the  voice- 
box,  or,  as  it  might  well  be  called,  the  "  sound-box,"  is  very 
rare:  in  other  words,  and  paraphrasing  an  old  proverb, 
"Take  care  of  the  lungs  and  the  voice  will  take  care  of 
itself."  Our  experience,  lasting  for  many  years  from  the 
double  point  of  view  of  doctor  and  teacher,  and  equally  of 
patients  and  pupils,  has  led  us  to  an  independent  but  similar 
conclusion  on  this  point,  and  of  its  correctness  we  are  both 
most  firmly  convinced.  Many  defects  complained  of  by 
patients  or  pupils  are,  by  doctors  and  teachers  unac- 
quainted with,  or  unpractised  in  the  use  of,  the  laryngo- 


THE  HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  THE  LARYNX,  127 

scope,  ascribed  to  trouble  or  disease  in  the  larynx,  which 
on  inspection  will  be  found  perfectly  healthy.  The  so-called 
straining  of  the  vocal  cords  only  exists  in  an  ignorant 
imagination  which  fixes  the  seat  of  disease  where  the 
trouble  is  most  frequently  felt,  and  not  at  its  source  of 
origin.  Of  course  there  may  be  an  inflammation  or  con- 
gestion of  the  vocal  ligaments  as  of  other  parts,  but  it  is 
astonishing  in  how  large  a  majority  of  cases  of  loss  of 
the  speaking  or  singing  voice  the  larynx  escapes  unless 
there  be  some  serious  constitutional  mischief. 

Action  of  the  vocal  hgaments  is  at  least  semi-automatic, 
and  provided  only  that  the  registers  be  not  extended 
beyond  their  normal  hmits,  or  the  act  of  singing  be 
pursued  under  unfavourable  circumstances,  or  for  too 
lengthened  a  period,  it  is  very  difficult  to  injure  them. 
We  have  seen  hundreds  of  cases  in  which  the  vocal 
ligaments  supposed  to  be  at  fault  have  been  healthy  and 
in  which  vocal  defects  have  been  cured  solely  by  attention 
to  breathing,  to  digestion,  or  to  some  portion  of  the 
mechanism  above  the  voice-box,  that  is  to  say  in  the 
resonating  cavities. 

Nervo-muscular  affections  giving  rise  to  impaired  mo- 
bility of  the  vocal  ligaments  are  rare,  and  are  generally  due 
to  constitutional  or  cerebral  causes,  or  to  pressure  of  some 
morbid  growth,  as  an  aneurism  or  other  tumour  on  the 
motor  nerve.  As  far,  then,  as  we  are  here  concerned  with 
the  vibrating  element  in  its  medical  aspect,  it  is  sufficient 
to  give  the  reader  the  following  directions  if  he  desires  to 
avoid  laryngeal  fatigue : — 

I.  Never  endeavour  to  produce  a  vocal  tone  without 
having  plenty  of  breath,  and  that  thoroughly  under 
control. 

2    Hold   the    breath  when  ^/^spired  and  commence  to 


128  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

^jirpire  only  on  commencing  to  speak  or  sing,  that  is,  at 
the  moment  it  is  required  to  set  the  ligaments  in  vibration. 

3.  Do  not  think  that  loudness  is  essential  to  force  or 
beauty ;  shouting  is  always  injurious.  The  telling  quality 
of  laryngeal  tone  depends  solely  on  the  amplitude  of  the 
vibrations,  and  this  is  controlled  solely  and  entirely  by 
the  will  which  directs  the  due  proportion  of  air  to  set 
the  vocal  ligaments  into  more  or  less  full  vibration. 
For  all  purposes  of  practice  it  is  especially  advisable  for 
the  pupil  to  sing  piano^  which  term  does  not  imply 
diminished  vigour,  but  simply  reduced  amplitude  of  the 
vibrations. 

4.  Never  use  the  voice  when  functional  failure  gives 
warning  that  the  organ  or  the  general  health  is  disordered. 

5.  Do  not  attempt  to  use  the  voice  in  unfavourable 
circumstances,  as  in  the  open  air,  especially  if  the  weather 
be  cold  or  raw,  nor  in  a  room  impregnated  with  tobacco 
smoke,  foul  air,  or  dust.  Above  all  do  not  use  the  voice, 
even  for  conversation,  in  trains  or  vehicles,  or  in  any  cir- 
cumstances of  noise  which  will  require  undue  functional 
exertion.  In  this  connection  it  will  be  important  to 
keep  quiet  and  avoid  chattering  and  laughing  between 
songs  or  the  acts  of  a  drama  or  opera. 

6.  Do  not  use  the  voice  for  too  long  a  period  at  a 
time,  but  always  cease  before  fatigue  is  experienced. 
Especially  avoid  encores  of  songs  which  have  required 
much  exertion  or  production  of  a  telling  high  note  in  the 
final  cadenza.  It  is  but  rarely  that  a  song  is  sung  as  well 
on  a  re-demand  as  at  first. 

7.  After  continued  singing  or  speaking  be  careful  to 
prevent  exposure  of  the  throat  either  externally  or  in- 
ternally to  the  impressions  of  cold  air.  The  same  remark 
applies  as  to  the   necessity   of  guarding   against   sudden 


HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  THE  RESONATOR.  129 

changes  from  hot  to  cold  air  even  when  the  voice  has 
not  been  used. 

A  few  practical  hints  as  to  the  symptoms  and  treatment 
of  the  milder  forms  of  laryngeal  disease  will  be  found  in 
the  chapter  "  The  Ailments  of  the  Voice-User." 


III.— THE    HYGIENIC    ASPECT    OF    MANAGEMENT 
OF  THE  RESONATING  PORTION  OF  THE  VOICE. 

Questions  of  alterations  of  form  as  the  result  of  con- 
stitutional disease,  and  disorders  of  secretion,  oftentimes  the 
result  of  indigestion,  are  here  involved.  These  also  will 
be  elsewhere  considered,  and  it  is  sufficient  here  to  remark 
that  in  a  vast  number  of  instances  of  vocal  impairment 
in  which  there  is  actual  visible  disease  in  this  region,  the 
first  cause  may  often  be  found  in  defective  respiration. 
In  such  a  case  an  effort  has  been  made  in  the  pharynx  or 
fauces  to  correct  or  strengthen  a  tone  imperfectly  formed 
in  the  vibrating  portion  due  to  an  improperly  impelled  or 
insufficient  volume  of  air.  Mandl  ('  Hygiene  de  la  Voix.' 
Paris,  1876.  p.  17)  has  drawn  attention  to  the  fact  that 
"  during  the  effort  which  accompanies  collar-bone  re- 
spiration, it  almost  constantly  occurs  that  the  tongue  is 
retracted,  and  as  a  result  there  is  a  diminution  in  the 
dimensions  of  the  resonant  cavities  of  the  pharynx,  the 
shape  of  which  is  now  no  longer  capable  of  adapting  itself 
to  the  exigencies  of  various  tones  on  account  of  this  forced 
position  of  the  tongue.  One  can  consequently  and  very 
readily  understand  the  baneful  influence  which  collar-bone 
breathing  exercises  on  the  timbrel 

With  regard  to  the  hygienic  management  of  the  articu- 
lating cavity,  it  is  essential  that  the  pupil  should  thoroughly 
understand  the  various  alterations  of  the  shape  of  the  lips 

K 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


and  position  of  the  tongue  in  enunciation  of  the  various 
consonants,  and  it  is  from  ignorance  of  or  inattention  to 
this  physiological  information  that  many  songs  musically 
beautiful  are  unintelligible  or  disagreeable  in  their  effect  on 
the  hearer.  It  stands  to  reason  as  a  result  of  this  statement 
that  it  is  absurd  for  a  master  to  endeavour  to  teach  songs 
in  a  language  not  his  own,  or  with  the  pronunciation  of 
which  he  is  not  fully  acquainted ;  and  it  may  be  added 
that  it  would  be  well  for  the  same  reason  if  singers 
would  confine  delivery  of  songs  to  the  same  limits,  or 
at  least  master  the  pronunciation  of  a  language  which 
they  oftentimes  only  learn  as  a  parrot  for  the  actual  lesson 
of  each  individual  composition. 

Before  closing  this  chapter  it  may  be  worth  while  once 
more  to  insist  that  almost  all  faults  of  singing  or  speaking 
resolve  themselves  under  one  large  heading  o^ fatigue  ;  and 
the  cause  of  this  fatigue,  whether  felt  in  chest,  voice-box, 
or  upper  throat,  is  almost  always  to  be  found  in  irregular 
muscular  action,  causing  undue  struggle  with  the  oppos- 
ing muscles.  The  particular  muscles  most  frequently  at 
fault  are  the  respiratory  ;  and  only  by  correct  action  of 
these  muscles  of  respiration  can  fatigue  of  the  voice  be 
ensured  against,  or  if  experienced  can  it  be  remedied. 
It  is  astonishing  how  many  and  various  are  the  defects 
which  can  be  explained  from  this  one  standpoint.  In  the 
chest  are  induced  shortness  of  inspiration,  with  labour, 
oppression,  and  hurry  in  expiration.  These  give  rise 
to  prickings,  spasms,  cramps,  and  even  continuous 
muscular  pains.  The  lungs  imperfectly  aerated  are  liable 
to  congestions  and  over-distention,  and  the  action  of  the 
heart  is  impaired,  and  even  seriously  disturbed.  One  very 
characteristic  pain  is  a  sensation  of  sinking  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  diaphragm,  or  midriff,  which  might  be 


HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  THE  RESONATOR.  131 

well  described  in  the  words  of  Shakespeare  as  "  an  under- 
going pain."  It  is  due  entirely  to  fatigue  and  consequent 
collapse  of  this  normally  firm  supporting  medium  between 
chest  and  abdomen. 

In  the  larynx,  fatigue,  due  to  the  same  cause,  is  felt  as  a 
contraction  of  the  closing  muscles,  which  leads  to  jerky  and 
noisy  breathing.  Purity  of  vocal  tone  is  painfully  im- 
paired, and  the  voice  becomes  weak  in  intensity,  unequal 
in  power,  veiled  in  quality,  quavering  and  shaky  in 
utterance.  All  the  refinements  of  vocalization  are  also  lost 
or  rendered  uncertain.  The  singer  or  speaker  oftentimes, 
as  before  stated,  endeavours  to  overcome  these  laryngeal 
defects  by  use  of  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx,  and  almost 
all  troubles  in  this  region,  not  only  of  sensation,  but  as 
actually  seen  to  be  morbid  to  the  medical  eye,  may  be 
accounted  for  on  the  basis  of  this  argument. 

To  the  late  Dr.  Mandi,  of  Paris,  we  owe  our  thanks  for 
having  insisted  on  the  importance  of  this  very  great 
hygienic  question.  His  first  articles  in  the  Gazette 
Medicate^  ^^SS-i  attracted  much  attention  and  opposition 
in  both  medical  and  musical  journals.  That  they  were 
required  was  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  following  precept, 
to  which  we  were  the  first  to  draw  attention  of  English 
readers  nearly  ten  years  ago,  as  to  breathings  was  given  in 
La  MSthode  de  Chant  du  Conservatoire  de  Musique  ; 
"  Quand  on  respire  pour  parler  ou  pour  renouveler  simple- 
ment  lair  des  poumons,  le  premier  mouvement  est  celui 
de  Faspiration,  alors  le  ventre  se  gonfle  et  sa  partie 
posterieure  s'avance  un  peu.  .  .  .  Au  contraire,  dans 
Taction  de  respirer  pour  chanter,  en  aspirant  il  faut 
aplatir  le  ventre  et  le  faire  remonter  avec  promptitude  en 
gonflant  et  avanqant  la  poitrine." 

Mandl  believed  that   to  this  faulty  respiration  was  due 

K  2 


132  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

the  modern  degeneration  of  singing  voices,  which  "  were  in 
themselves  better,  and  were  longer  conserved  in  the  old 
Italian  school,  directed  by  the  Rubinis,  Porporas,  &c., 
than  in  our  modern  schools,  which  teach,  or  at  least  which 
permit,  clavicular  respiration."  It  is  now  some  years  since 
we  took  up  the  subject  in  this  country,  and  we  are  gratified 
to  feel  that  the  result  has  not  been  unfruitful.  Much, 
however,  remains  to  be  done,  for  the  question  is  by  no 
means  understood,  even  by  many  who  most  loudly  ac- 
knowledge the  justice  of  the  charge,  and  profess  to  teach 
on  the  principles  herein  inculcated.  We  feel,  therefore, 
that  no  apology  is  necessary  for  the  very  large  amount  of 
space  we  have  given  to  these  considerations,  and  the 
detail  with  which  we  have  pointed  out  the  principles 
of  correct  respiration,  the  faults  arising  from  incorrect, 
and  the  exact  manner  in  which  proper  breathing  is  to  be 
pursued  by  the  pupil  and  tested  by  the  teacher. 

In  illustration  of  the  arguments  in  favour  of  scientific 
training,  we  append  an  account  of  a  few  of  the  numerous 
cases  which  have  come  under  our  attention  recently.  They 
demonstrate  first,  the  injurious  effects  of  wrong  method, 
and  secondly,  the  absolute  importance  of  lessons  in  breath- 
ing and  delivery  for  the  complete  re-establishment  of  vocal 
strength. 

Rev,  H.  G.  had  completely  broken  down  in  voice, 
and  for  three  months  was  entirely  unable  to  take  part  in 
the  church  service.  After  medical  treatment  beneficially 
directed  to  his  physical  symptoms,  which  were  all  attribut- 
able to  wrong  vocal  method,  he  received  a  course  of  vocal 
training,  including  lung  gymnastics.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  treatment  his  breathing  capacity,  which  should 
have  had  a  normal  average  of  about  275  cubic  inches,  was 
under  200 ;  at  the  end  of  one  week's  breathing  practice, 


HYGIENIC  ASPECT  OF  THE  RESONATOR.  133 

it  was  254;  at  the  end  of  the  second  week,  272.  He 
quite  recovered  his  voice  in  twelve  lessons,  and,  in  the 
absence  of  his  vicar,  conducted  the  whole  service  without 
inconvenience. 

Rev.  Canon  G.  broke  down  in  voice,  and  was  unable 
to  take  duty  for  six  months.  Sang  with  very  "  woolly " 
tone  and  without  power.  Breathing  entirely  clavicular  in 
the  production  of  short  tones.  The  effect  of  his  faulty 
method  was  such  that  it  was  necessary  to  excise  his 
tonsils,  and  to  reduce  the  length  of  his  uvula ;  and  further 
to  destroy  several  enlarged  and  varicose  veins  at  the  back 
of  his  throat.  As  he  exhibited  a  strong  disposition  to 
vocal  relapses  on  each  occasion  of  attempting  church  duty 
or  preaching  he  was  directed  to  take  elocutionary  lessons. 
The  result  of  abdominal  breathing  as  applied  to  phonation 
was  in  this  case  little  short  of  marvellous.  At  the  end 
of  three  months'  training  he  writes :  "  To  measure  the  value 
of  your  help  I  have  only  to  remember  that  after  being  for 
eight  months  absolutely  unable  to  use  my  voice,  and  this 
in  spite  of  all  that  medical  treatment  could  do,  I  have 
now,  after  so  few  lessons,  just  completed  a  fortnight's  duty 
in  the  choral  services  of  the  cathedral,  and  am  actually 
the  better  in  voice  for  the  practice.  It  causes  me  neither 
strain  nor  fatigue  now  to  take  a  service.  You  will  see 
what  this  means  for  me,  my  duties  being  what  they  are." 

Rev,  H,  H,  suffered  from  spasm  of  the  glottis  to  such 
an  extent  that  speaking  in  ordinary  voice  was  almost 
impossible  to  himself,  while  his  efforts  were  painful  both 
to  hear  and  to  see.  Had  been  for  years  under  treatment, 
and  had  by  advice  resided  for  five  years  in  Spain,  without 
beneficial  result.  On  his  return  he  consulted  us.  Medical 
attention,  galvanism,  and  every  form  of  nerve  tonic  having 
proved  unavaihng,  he  was  earnestly  urged  to   undergo  a 


34  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


course  of  lung  gymnastics.  After  a  very  short  course 
he  writes  :  ''  I  am  sure  you  will  be  pleased  to  hear  that  last 

Sunday  evening    I    preached    in Cathedral,  in  the 

nave,  and  was  heard  perfectly  throughout  the  whole 
building,  both  in  the  choir  and  down  to  the  end  of  the 
nave.  People  have  remarked  what  a  strong  voice  I  have ! 
With  God's  blessing  I  owe  this  to  your  skill." 

A.  B.^  Esq.^  M.P.,  suffered  from  impediment  in  speech 
and  weak  voice.  Had  been  for  years  in  the  House  of 
Commons  and  frequently  spoken,  but  was  unable  to 
make  himself  heard  sufficiently  to  obtain  a  report  of  his 
speeches.  After  two  courses  of  instruction  he  is  able  to 
speak  with  fluency  and  ease,  and  is  now  well  heard  in  the 
gallery,  as  proved  by  the  frequent  i reports  of  his  speeches 
in  the  papers. 

C  W.  P.,  Esq.,  Mus.  Bac,  spoke  in  a  child's  treble, 
and  thought  his  voice  had  never  broken.  After  twelve 
lessons  has  acquired  a  full  sonorous  man's  voice,  which  has 
since  developed  into  a  bass  of  excellent  quality. 

Miss  M.  E.  C.  suffered  from  severe  throat  affection  and 
loss  of  voice  consequent  upon  over-straining  and  forcing 
of  the  registers  with  clavicular  breathing.  Received 
medical  treatment  and  subsequently  vocal  gymnastics. 
Her  mother  writes :  "  In  addition  to  the  improvement  in 
her  voice  I  can  perceive  benefit  to  general  health  under 
the  method  of  breathing  which  you  suggested." 

Miss  D.  M.  was  rapidly  losing  the  upper  and  middle 
notes  of  her  voice  from  faulty  production.  The  quality 
of  tone  was  very  impure.  After  six  months'  training 
her  voice  has  become  clear  and  bell-like,  and  the  registers 
are  perfectly  blended.  The  compass  has  greatly  increased, 
she  bemg  able  to  sing  with  ease  F  in  alt. 

Mr.  R.  A.,2i  precentor  in  a  Scotch  church,  suffered  so 


RELATION  OF  THROAT  AND  EAR.  135 

severely  with  chest  symptoms,  the  result  of  wrong  delivery, 
that  one  doctor  recommended  him  to  relmquish  singing 
altogether,  another  to  go  to  the  country  to  live,  although 
no  actual  organic  change  in  his  lungs  could  be  detected. 
He  received  some  few  lessons  in  the  right  method  of 
respiration,  and  shortly  after  wrote  :  "  I  have  neither  given 
up  my  Precentorship  nor  changed  my  residence,  and  I  am 
at  present  enjoying  excellent  health.  I  attribute  all  that 
human  means  can  claim  to  careful  and  proper  breathing 
exercises.  Your  instructions  were  listened  to  by  me  with 
eager  attention  and  practised  most  religiously." 


THE  RELATIONS  OF  THE  THROAT  AND  EAR  IN 
REGARD  TO  VOICE. 

This  question  is  a  somewhat  complicated  one.  We  have 
seen,  in  the  section  on  the  "  Resonator,"  that  the  throat 
is  directly  connected  with  the  ears  by  means  of  the 
Eustachian  tubes.  (PI.  III.  E.^  p.  39).  These  tubes  are, 
in  a  state  of  health,  slightly  open,  and  they  are  still  more 
widely  opened  during  each  act  of  swallowing.  By  these 
means  the  air  outside  and  inside  the  drumheads  of  the  ear 
is  kept  in  the  same  state  of  density,  thus  allowing  the 
membranes  to  vibrate  regularly  and  freely,  a  condition 
which  is  indispensable  to  good  hearing. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Eustachian  tubes  are  closed 
by  a  swelling  of  their  mucous  membrane  caused  by  a 
cold  in  the  head  or  by  a  sore  throat,  &c.,  then  the  hearing 
is  impaired,  and  speakers  and  singers  are  particularly 
inconvenienced  by  not  being  able  accurately  to  judge 
the  sound  of  their  own  voices.  Accumulations  of  wax  in 
the  external    passages  of  the  ear  by  exerting  too  great  a 


136  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

pressure  on  the  drum  cavity  from  without  may  have  the 
same  effect  on  the  character  of  the  voice  and  impairment 
of  hearing,  and  in  both  conditions  very  annoying  noises  in 
the  head  may  occasion  a  further  comphcation. 

One  striking  case  of  this  nature  occurred  to  us  in 
which  a  very  well-known  actor,  formerly  under  our  care, 
came  later  blaming  us  for  not  having  recognised  some 
serious  diseased  condition  of  his  larynx,  which  he  had 
been  informed  by  another  doctor  was  at  the  root  of  all  his 
vocal  disability.  But  he  was  not  aware  until  his  hearing 
was  tested  that  the  auditory  function  had  simultaneously 
deteriorated.  On  syringing  the  ears  very  large  plugs  of 
impacted  wax  were  removed  from  each  passage,  with  the 
immediate  result  of  complete  and  permanent  vocal  im- 
provement and  restoration  to  the  sufferer,  not  only  of 
perfect  hearing,  but  of  a  satisfactory  sensation  to  himself  of 
the  sound  of  his  own  voice. 

When  the  defect  is  due  to  extension  of  disease  of  the 
mucous  membrane  in  the  throat  or  nasal  passages,  the 
trouble  is  often  remedied  by  inflating  the  Eustachian 
tubes,  an  act  easily  accomplished  by  the  simple  expedient 
of  shutting  the  mouth,  closing  the  nostrils,  and  then 
forcing  the  air  into  the  Eustachian  tubes  by  blowing. 
When  this  experiment  has  not  the  desired  effect,  medical 
assistance  should  be  procured  at  once,  and  the  more  ac- 
curate method  of  inflation  with  the  Politzer  air  syringe  will 
probably  be  effectual  where  mere  inflation  by  blowing  was 
of  no  avail ;  or  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  pass  a  delicate 
hollow  cannula  or  catheter  into  the  nostrils  directly  to  the 
orifice  of  this  tube,  and  thus  project  air  or  medicated 
vapours,  so  as  to  overcome  the  obstruction  and  to  reduce 
the  thickening  of  the  tissues  causing  it.  It  is  on  account 
of  this  connection  of  the  throat  and  ear  that  scarlet  fever, 


RELATION  OF  THROAT  AND  EAR.  137 

which,  as  is  well  known,  almost  always  attacks  the  throat,  is 
followed  by  inflammation  and  discharges  from  the  ear,  and 
the  continuance  of  some  of  the  muscles  of  the  palate  into 
the  walls  of  the  orifice  of  the  Eustachian  tubes  accounts 
for  pain  in  the  ears  felt  in  many  acute  diseases  of  the 
throat — as  quinsy — these  pains  being  experienced  more 
especially  during  the  act  of  swallowing. 

So  much  for  the  direct  relation  between  throat  and  ear. 
Now  for  the  indirect  relation  :  this  implies  that,  voice  and 
hearing  being  under  immediate  and  absolute  control  of  the 
brain,  the  voice  should  be  capable  of  producing  with 
unfailing  accuracy  any  tone  which  the  ear  has  mentally 
heard  in  advance,  and  the  ear  should  be  able  to  recognise , 
with  equal  certainty  any  tone  produced  by  the  voice. 

A  failure  of  this  process  is  sometimes  caused  by  want  of 
control  over  the  laryngeal  muscles  governing  the  pitch  of 
the  voice,  and  this  is  a  source  of  great  trouble  to  singers. 
They  perfectly  hear  that  they  are  out  of  tune,  but  they 
are,  nevertheless,  unable  to  put  matters  right.  This  is, 
however,  comparatively  speaking,  a  rare  occurrence,  due 
in  most  cases  to  relaxation  or  other  indisposition,  and 
will  generally  quickly  pass  away,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  when'  it  is  caused  as  a  reflex  of  an  impaired  digestion. 
Where  it  is  constitutional  there  is  probably  no  cure  for  it, 
and  certainly  no  one  so  afflicted  could  ever  hope  to  have 
the  slightest  chance  as  a  singer. 

Or  the  ear  is  at  fault  and  fails  to  appreciate  the  tone  of 
the  voice.  One  person  may  be  very  short-sighted  and  yet 
have  an  exquisitely  delicate  eye  for  colour.  Another's 
vision  may  be  as  keen  as  possible,  but  he  cannot  distinguish 
black  from  red  or  blue  from  green,  &c.  The  person  in  the 
latter  case  is  said  to  be  colour-blind. 

Things  are  very  similar  with  regard  to   the  ear.     One 


138  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

person's  hearing  may  be  very  dull,  so  far  as  discerning  faint 
sounds  or  sounds  at  a  distance  is  concerned,  and  yet  he  will 
have  the  power  of  recognising  and  of  classifying  sounds,  so 
that  he  can  correctly  name  any  tone  struck,  behind  his 
back,  on  the  piano,  or  write  down  a  tune  played  or  sung 
to  him.     Such  a  person  is  said  to  have  a  musical  ear. 

Another  person  will  have  the  acutest  hearing  imaginable, 
and  yet  be  unable  to  distinguish  a  high  tone  from  a  low 
one,  or  one  tune  from  another.  We  know  a  clergyman 
who  cannot  tell  ''  God  save  the  Queen "  from  "  Yankee 
Doodle,"  and  who  only  becomes  aware  of  the  fact  that 
the  National  Anthem  is  being  played  when  he  sees  the 
people  rising  from  their  seats  or  uncovering  their  heads. 
Such  a  person  is  said  to  have  no  musical  ear.  Cases  of 
this  kind  are  not  amenable  to  medical  treatment  except 
when  the  loss  of  the  power  to  recognise  different  musical 
sounds  is  the  result  of  disease. 

But  the  musical  ear  may  be  trained^  and  the  results  to 
be  obtained  in  this  manner  are  frequently  most  astonish- 
ing. It  is  quite  a  common  experience  that  people  who 
could  not  at  first  distinguish  one  tone  from  another 
eventually  obtained  that  power  in  a  very  high  degree,  and 
distanced  many  others  who  originally  appeared  to  be  much 
more  gifted.  The  points  here  to  be  attended  to  are  as 
follows : — 

1.  Take  the  pupil  in  hand  early  in  life. 

2.  Do  not  attempt  to  cultivate  a  sense  of  absolute  pitch. 
There  are  very  few  people  naturally  endowed  with  it,  but 
to  create  such  a  power  by  training  is  perfectly  hopeless. 
To  cultivate  a  sense  of  relative  pitch  is  comparatively 
easy. 

3.  Do  not  rely  upon  tempered  instruments  for  exercises 
and  illustrations,  but   make  pure  intonation  the  basis  of 


RELATION  OF  THROAT  AND  EAR.  139 

all  teaching.  In  other  words,  avoid  the  piano  and  the 
harmonium,  and  use  a  string  instrument  or  the  voice. 

4.  Try  to  awaken  in  the  pupil  a  perception  of  the 
characteristics  by  which  every  tone  in  key  is  distinguished 
from  its  neighbours. 

We  should  not  endeavour  to  recognise  a  tone  by  the 
fact  of  its  standing  a  semitone  or  a  tone  above  or  below  its 
predecessor,  but  rather  by  the  general  impression  it  makes 
upon  the  mind. 

It  must  be  admitted,  finally,  that  although  in  many 
instances  the  ear  can  be  trained  to  a  wonderful  extent, 
there  are  also  cases  in  which  little  or  no  improvement  is 
obtainable.  Under  such  circumstances  a  speaker  will 
always  be  more  or  less  a  failure,  and  a  singer  an 
impossibility. 


I40  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


EXPERIMENTS  BEFORE  THE  INVENTION  OF 
THE  LARYNGOSCOPE. 

We  think  it  unprofitable  to  give  an  account  of  the 
more  or  less  erroneous  theories  about  the  production  of 
the  human  voice  entertained  by  the  ancients.  Anatomy 
and  physiology  made  considerable  progress  during  the 
1 6th  and  17th  centuries,  but  it  was  not  till  four  decades 
of  the  1 8th  century  had  passed  away  that  investigations 
were  made  with  voice-boxes  of  animals  and  of  men ;  and, 
although  even  these  appear  antiquated  in  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge,  yet  they  are  still  relied  upon  by  some 
old-fashioned  people  who  do  not  "  believe  "  in  the  laryngo- 
scope. A  short  survey  of  these  experiments  may  therefore 
be  interesting,  and  they  will  be  mentioned  in  the  order  in 
which  they  were  published. 

Ferrein  (1741)  was  the  first  who  succeeded  in  producing 
tones  upon  an  exsected  voice-box — that  of  a  dog.  He 
blew  into  it  after  having  approximated  the  vocal  ligaments, 
when  he  says  it  appeared  to  become  animated,  and  it 
produced  tones  which  were  pleasanter  to  him  than  the 
most  charming  concerts.  We  have  already  seen  on 
page  88  the  conclusions  at  which  he  arrived,  and  although 
they  are  now  known  to  be  incorrect  in  the  most  essential 
particular,  they  were  generally  accepted  for  a  long  time 
afterwards. 

Kempelen  (1791)  made  considerable  advance  upon  the 
above  theory  by  maintaining  that  a  greater  tension  of  the 


PRE-LARYNGOSCOPIC  EXPERIMENTS.  141 

vocal  ligaments  went  hand  in  hand  with  a  diminution  of 
the  slit  between  them,  and  vice  versa, 

Dutrochet  (1806)  compared  the  action  of  the  vocal 
ligaments  with  that  of  the  human  lips  in  playing  upon  the 
horn. 

Liskovius  (18 14)  objected  to  Ferrein's  string  theory, 
but  he  arrived  at  the  equally  wrong  conclusion  that  the 
human  voice  is  the  result  of  the  air  being  forced  through 
a  slit  formed  by  the  vocal  ligaments,  and  that  the  pitch  of 
the  voice  depended  upon  the  size  of  this  slit. 

Savart  (1825)  strayed  still  farther  from  the  truth  by 
comparing  the  mechanism  of  the  voice  with  a  bird-catcher's 
call.  This  theory,  in  which  the  pockets  of  the  larynx 
(the  ventricles  of  Morgagni)  play  an  important  part,  would 
seem  to  be  sufficiently  disproved  by  the  fact  that  many 
animals  with  very  powerful  voices  are  not  endowed  with 
laryngeal  pockets  at  all.  Nevertheless,  this  theory  is,  even 
at  the  present  time,  upheld  by  some  authors  although  in  a 
somewhat  modified  form. 

Malgaigne  (1831)  proved  by  experiment  that  the  voice 
was  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal  ligaments, 
and  pointed  out  the  great  importance  of  the  movements  of 
the  soft  palate,  though  going  too  far  by  asserting  that  the 
formation  of  the  "  falsetto  "  depended  upon  this. 

Lehfeldt  (1835)  was  the  first  to  observe  that  the  "chest 
voice"  is  formed  by  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal  hgaments 
through  their  entire  thickness  including  the  shield-pyramid 
muscles  which  constitute  the  bulk  of  them,  and  that  in 
"falsetto"  the  vibrations  are  limited  to  the  thin  inner 
edges  of  the  ligaments. 

Magendie  (1838)  made  experiments  upon  living  dogs 
whose  vocal  ligaments  he  laid  bare.  In  this  way  he 
ascertained  that  the  first  and  indispensable  condition  of  tone 


142  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

production  is  the  approximation  of  the  pyramids,  and  that 
there  can  be  no  tone  while  the  glottis  is  open.  He  also  saw 
the  vibrations  of  the  vocal  ligaments  in  the  production  of 
tone,  and  asserted  that  the  pitch  was  higher  or  lower 
according  to  the  ligaments  vibrating  only  partly  or  in  their 
entirety. 

This  brings  us  to  the  important  investigations  of  Joh. 
Mueller  ('  Ueber  die  Compensation  der  physischen  Kraefte 
am  menschlichen  Stimmapparat.'  Berlin,  1839).  Mueller 
made,  like  Ferrein,  the  fundamental  mistake  of  supposing 
that  the  vocal  ligaments  were  the  sounding  element,  and 
that  they  were  made  to  produce  tone  by  the  force  of  the 
expiratory  air,  just  as  the  wind  plays  upon  the  strings  of  an 
./Eoiian  harp  without  producing  any  sound  itself.  His 
experiments  are,  moreover,  now  in  a  great  measure  super- 
seded by  the  observations  with  the  laryngoscope.  Never- 
theless, his  researches  are  so  exhaustive  that  they  are  still 
most  valuable  in  considering  questions  of  theory  concern- 
ing the  voice. 

Having  prepared  a  detached  larynx  and  connected  it 
with  a  bellows,  Mueller  approximated  the  pyramids ;  after 
which,  by  blowing  into  the  voice-box,  he  could  produce 
tones  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the  human  voice. 
This  was  the  easier  the  closer  the  vocal  ligaments  were 
together,  and  a  bubbling  noise  was  the  result  if  a  space 
remained  between  the  pyramids.  It  was  further  necessary 
to  allow  the  air  to  pass  over  tepid  water,  as  otherwise  the 
ligaments  soon  became  dry  and  were  then  incapable  of 
producing  any  tone  at  all. 

The  pitch  of  the  tones  depended  upon  the  weights  "by 
means  of  which  the  shield  cartilage  was  pulled  forward 
and  downward,  thereby  stretching  the  vocal  ligaments  ; 
although  the  laws  here  ascertained  were  not  those  relating 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  143 

to  Strings,  which  is  not  surprising  considering  that  the 
vocal  Hgaments  are  made  longer  by  being  stretched,  which 
is  not  the  case  with  strings  upon  musical  instruments.  By 
pushing  the  shield  cartilage  backward  and  upward  the 
vocal  ligaments  were  relaxed,  and  produced  the  lowest 
tones  of  a  bass  voice.  If  the  ligaments  were  allowed  to 
vibrate  through  their  whole  dimensions  it  was  possible  by 
thus  stretching  and  relaxing  them  to  get  a  serviceable 
compass  of  about  two  octaves.  It  was  possible  to  raise  the 
pitch  even  beyond  this  limit,  but  the  tones  so  produced 
were  shrill  and  hissing. 

Mueller  also  ascertained  that  in  order  to  vary  the  pitch 
by  adding  tubes  to  the  larynx  a  much  greater  length  was 
required  than  could  be  supplied  by  the  corresponding- 
cavities  of  the  human  body,  and  he  consequently  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  pitch  of  the  voice  in  the  living 
subject  is  independent  of  the  length  of  the  vocal  passages. 
He  also  discovered,  however,  that  pitch  was  raised  very  con- 
siderably by  the  introduction  of  a  hollow  plug  into  the 
pipe  just  below  the  vibrating  element,  and  when  this  action 
is  imitated  by  compressing  the  plates  of  the  shield  cartilage 
while  singing  it  has  the  same  effect  upon  the  voice. 

Another  factor  greatly  affecting  the  pitch  was  found  to 
consist  in  the  power  of  blast,  and  it  was  possible  by  this 
means  to  raise  the  pitch  with  the  same  amount  of  stretch- 
ing as  much  as  a  fifth.  This  shows  that  it  is  necessary  to 
compensate  the  raising  influence  of  an  increased  power  of 
blast  by  a  corresponding  relaxation  of  the  vocal  ligaments, 
without  which  the  tone  cannot  be  maintained  upon  the 
same  height.  Of  the  difliculty  thus  created  we  have 
painful  practical  experience  in  the  sharp  singing  of  un- 
skilful performers  when  they  i^XQdMZt  fortissimo  tones. 

We    have  just  called    attention  to    Lehfeldt's    original 


144  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

observations  with  regard  to  the  mechanism  of  the  "  chest 
voice "  and  of  "  falsetto."  These  were  confirmed  by- 
Mueller,  who  further  showed  that  the  dimensions  of  the 
space  immediately  below  the  vocal  ligaments  is  of  great 
consequence  in  this  matter,  and  we  have  already  described 
his  experiments  with  a  hollow  plug,  and  how  this  action 
may  be  imitated  in  singing.  A  similar  effect  may  be 
produced  by  contraction  of  the  inner  portion  of  the 
shield  -  pyramid  muscles,  which  diminishes  the  space 
below  the  vocal  ligaments.  This  is  one  of  the  factors  in 
the  production  of  the  upper  series  of  tones  in  "  chest 
voice." 

It  will  now  be  necessary,  in  order  to  estimate  the  experi- 
ments upon  exsected  larynges  at  their  proper  value,  to  say 
a  few  words  about  the  way  of  conducting  them.  The 
voice-box,  with  a  piece  of  the  windpipe  attached  to  it,  is 
put  with  the  back  part  upon  a  little  board,  to  which  the 
ring  cartilage  is  fastened  with  a  piece  of  string.  A  needle 
is  pushed  through  the  bases  of  the  pyramids  and  they  are 
pulled  together  by  applying  to  the  points  of  the  needle  a 
thread  in  the  form  of  an  8  ;  or,  dispensing  with  the  needle, 
the  pyramids  are  simply  sewn  together.  After  this  they 
are,  like  the  ring  cartilage,  fastened  to  the  board  just 
mentioned,  thus  making  them  a  fixed  point  for  the  purpose 
of  stretching  the  vocal  ligaments,  which  are,  of  course, 
brought  close  together  by  the  above-described  process. 
Another  thread  is  now  inserted  in  the  front  edge  of  the 
shield  cartilage,  and  passed  over  a  pulley,  after  which  the 
larynx  is  ready  for  stretching  the  vocal  ligaments  to  almost 
any  extent  by  attaching  weights  to  the  thread. 

It  is  a  point  of  the  greatest  practical  importance  to 
observe  that  by  these  means  the  pocket  ligaments  are  not 
approximated,  but  that  they  remain  widely  separated.     In 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  145 


order  to  bring  them  together  two  needles  are  pushed 
through  the  shield  cartilage  into  the  pyramids  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  are  contained  within  the  free  edges  of 
the  pocket  ligaments.  Only  by  separating  the  needles 
in  front  and  by  pressing  them  together  behind  and 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  pocket  ligaments  can 
these  finally  be  made  to  come  into  contact  with  each 
other. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  it  is  necessary  to  take  great 
liberties  with  the  dead  larynx  in  order  to  produce  tone. 
But,  what  is  worse,  it  is  admittedly  impossible  to  imitate 
the  action  of  the  shield  pyramid  or  vocal  muscles  upon 
which,  as  we  have  learnt,  the  voice  chiefly  depends. 
Experiments  of  this  kind  can  therefore  not  be  received 
as  evidence  except  in  so  far  as  they  are  corroborated  by 
investigations  upon  living  persons. 


THE   INVENTION   OF  THE   LARYNGOSCOPE. 

The  claimants  for  the  honour  of  having  invented  this 
beautiful  little  instrument  are  many,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  brief  historical  account:  — 

Bozzini  (Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  1807)  invented  an 
apparatus  for  illuminating  the  internal  cavities  of  the 
human  body,  and  among  these  the  throat.  This  instru- 
ment, although  clumsy  and  difficult  of  application, 
certainly  embodied  the  principle  of  the  laryngoscope. 
However,  it  never  came  into  use,  and  was  soon  again 
forgotten. 

Senn  (Geneva,  1827)  had  a  mirror  constructed  with 
which  he  endeavoured  to  explore  the  larynx  of  a  little  girl. 
In  this  he  failed,  and  although  he  suggested  that  a  larger 


146  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

mirror  might  be  employed  upon  adults,  yet  he  never  made 
any  further  attempts  to  use  it. 

Babington  (1827)  exhibited  before  the  Hunterian 
Society,  under  the  name  of  "  glottiscope,"  a  combination  of 
two  mirrors  exactly  upon  the  plan  of  our  present  "  laryn- 
goscope." Here,  then,  we  have  undoubtedly  the  instrument^ 
but,  unfortunately  for  the  claims  made  on  behalf  of  Dr. 
Babington,  he  does  not  appear  to  have  produced  any 
results  with  it,  and  there  are  certainly  no  cases  on  record 
in  which  it  has  been  of  service. 

Beaumes  (Lyons,  1838)  used  a  mirror  attached  to  a 
piece  of  whalebone. 

Liston  (London,  1840)  employed  "such  a  glass  as  is 
used  by  dentists,  on  a  long  stalk,  previously  dipped  in  hot 
water,"  and  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  really  saw 
anything  with  it.  But  even  he  merely  looked  upon  it  as  an 
aid  to  diagnosis,  and  never  dreamt  of  the  enormous  im- 
portance which  the  process  was  destined  to  acquire  in  the 
hands  of  a  later  observer. 

Avery  (London,  1840)  not  only  used  a  mirror  attached 
to  a  stem,  but  also  artificial  light  in  the  shape  of  a  candle 
wdth  a  metal  reflector  attached  to  it.  But  he  has  left  no 
description  of  his  instrument  on  record,  and  it  is  clear  that 
he  had  no  more  idea  of  its  immense  value  than  Liston. 

Warden  (Edinburgh,  1844)  used  prisms  of  glass  in  a 
similar  manner,  and  is  reported  to  have  caught  sight  of  the 
glottis  in  two  instances.  The  prisms,  however,  were  too 
thick  and  occupied  too  much  space  to  make  really  success- 
ful experiments  possible. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  notes  that  the  principle  of 
laryngoscopy  had  been  known  to  several  men  of  science, 
yet  the  results  obtained  with  the  instruments  formerly 
employed  were  almost  nil^  and  it  was  reserved  for  Manuel 


GARCIA'S  INVENTION  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE,        147 

Garcia,  the  famous  professor  of  singing,  to  show  the  world 
the  real  value  of  the  little  laryngeal  mirror ;  to  make 
original  additions  to  vocal  physiology  ;  to  settle,  beyond 
the  shadow  of  a  doubt,  the  true  theory  of  voice  produc- 
tion ;  to  disprove  many  absurd  notions  still  entertained 
upon  this  subject,  and  to  revolutionise  the  whole  treatment 
of  diseases  of  the  throat. 

Garcia  brilliantly  succeeded  where  all  his  predecessors 
had  more  or  less  failed,  and  he  was  certainly  the  first  to 
conceive  the  idea  of  making  observations  upon  his  own 
larynx  in  the  act  of  singing.  These  he  carried  out  in  the 
most  marvellous  manner,  giving  a  detailed  description  of 
even  the  minutest  movements  of  the  vocal  ligaments, 
which  is  still  recognised  as  being  substantially  accurate, 
and  which  is  the  more  wonderful  as  Garcia  had  practically 
to  create  the  whole  process  of  investigation  for  himself, 
and  was  neither  an  anatomist  nor  a  physiologist.  Garcia 
is,  therefore,  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  real  inventor 
of  the  laryngoscope,  and  he  is  now  also  universally 
recognised  as  such. 

Here  is  the  description  which  he  himself  gives  of  his 
modus  operandi : — 

"  The  method  which  I  have  adopted  is  very  simple.  It 
consists  in  placing  a  little  mirror,  fixed  on  a  long  handle 
suitably  bent,  in  the  throat  of  the  person  experimented  on 
against  the  soft  palate  and  the  uvula.  The  party  ought  to 
turn  himself  towards  the  sun,  so  that  the  luminous  rays 
falling  on  the  httle  mirror  may  be  reflected  on  the  larynx. 
If  the  observer  experiment  on  himself  he  ought,  by  means 
of  a  second  mirror,  to  receive  the  rays  ot  the  sun,  and 
direct  them  on  the  mirror  which  is  placed  against  the 
uvula."  {'  Observations  on  the  Human  Voice,'  by  Manuel 
Garcia,  read  before  the  Royal  Society  by  Professor  Sharpey 

L  2 


348  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


on     May    24th,     1855.      See     'Proceedings;     vol.    vii., 
No.  13,  p.  399.) 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  although  Garcia's 
statements  were  never  actually  disputed  by  any  one,  yet 
they  were  received  coldly  and  with  distrust.  Of  this 
discreditable  feeling  we  see  an  mstance  in  the  following 
passage  by  no  less  a  person  than  Professor  Merkel,  of 
Leipzig,  which,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  it 
is  impossible  to  read  without  a  smile : — ''  I  have  not  yet, 
it  is  true,  been  able  to  obtain  Garcia's  original  observa- 
tions, and  do  not  know,  therefore,  how  he  proceeded  in 
these  alleged  experiments,  what  he  has  seen  and  what  he 
has  not  seen,  but  I  have  just  grounds  to  doubt  the  reaUty 
of  his  observations  until  I  am  informed  in  what  manner 
Garcia  has  prevented  the  mirror  from  becoming  dimmed, 
and  how  he  draws  forward  the  lid  which  to  a  great  extent 
hides  the  glottis  from  the  eye  even  though  it  be  by  means 
of  the  mirror  placed  near  the  uvula,  etc."  ('Anthropo- 
phonik.'     Leipzig,  1857,  p.  608.) 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  Garcia's  laryngoscope  would 
eventually  have  been  neglected  as  all  its  predecessors  had 
been  but  for  Turck  and  Czermak,  two  physicians  in  Vienna, 
who  saw  the  practical  importance  of  the  process,  and  who 
introduced  it  to  the  medical  profession  in  general.  There 
is  a  squabble  of  priority  between  these  two  gentlemen  into 
which  we  do  not  propose  to  enter ;  but  it  is  certain  that 
Czermak  laboured  enthusiastically  in  the  new  cause,  and 
that,  by  his  demonstrations  and  lectures  in  almost  all 
the  chief  cities  of  Europe,  he  did  more  than  any  other 
man  to  disarm  prejudice,  and  to  popularise  the  laryngo- 
scope among  his  professional  brethren.  On  the  other 
hand,  Turck  has  left  a  clinical  volume  full  of  the  most 
interesting  cases  and  with  superb  illustrations,  which  it  is 


HOW  TO  USE  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  149 

unlikely  will   ever    be  surpassed :   it   will   always  stand  as 
the  classic  practical  work,  par  excellence,  of  the  specialty. 

Czermak  has  also  improved  upon  Garcia's  process  by 
substituting  artificial  light  for  that  of  the  sun,  thereby 
enabling  investigators  to  carry  on  their  work  in  any  place 
and  at  any  time.  His  services  in  connection  with  this 
matter  are  therefore  very  considerable,  and  by  many  he  is 
even  regarded  as  the  true  inventor  of  the  laryngoscope, 
which  distinction,  however,  clearly  belongs  to  Garcia,  and 
to  no  one  else. 


THE   LARYNGOSCOPE  AND   HOW  TO    USE   IT. 

The  laryngoscope  in  its  simplest  form  is  nothing  but  a 
little  mirror  about  the  size  of  a  shilling,  set  in  a  metal 
frame,  and  fastened  at  an  angle  of  1 20°  to  a  piece  of  wire 
from  three  to  four  inches  long,  which  is  put  into  a  small 
handle  of  ebony  or  ivory  not  much  thicker  than  a  pencil. 
We  have  already  seen  how  Garcia,  with  the  aid  of  sun- 
light, worked  with  it  upon  others  ;  add  to  this  that  the 
little  looking-glass,  which  is  called  the  laryngeal  mirror, 
must  be  warmed  before  being  introduced  into  the  throat 
in  order  to  prevent  its  becoming  dimmed  by  the  moisture 
of  the  breath,  and  the  description  is  complete. 

In  auto-laryngoscopy — that  is  to  say,  in  the  process  of 
making  laryngoscopic  observations  upon  oneself — the 
observer  sits  with  his  back  towards  the  sun,  and  with 
a  hand  looking-glass  reflects  the  light  falling  upon  the 
laryngeal  mirror  at  the  back  of  the  throat.  The  laryngeal 
image  will  then  be  seen  in  the  Jiand  looking-glass  by 
which  the  light  is  reflected. 

The  light  of  the  sun  is,  of  course,  vastly  superior  to 
even  the  most  brilHant  artificial  light,  but  it  is  not  so  easily 


so 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


managed,  and,  unfortunately,  in  this  country  it  is  not 
often  available ;  therefore,  for  laryngoscopy  to  become  of 
any  practical  importance  it  was  necessary  to  improve  upon 
Garcias  simple  method,  and  to  contrive  instruments 
enabling  observers  to  work  with  ease  in  any  place  and  at 


XXII. — Dr.  Tobold's  Laryngoscope.  ' 

The  right  hand  of  the  observer  is  represented  as  introducing  the  mirror  into 
the  mouth  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  larynx. 

any  time.  For  the  practical  purposes  of  observing  other 
persons'  throats,  as  is  done  by  the  doctor,  gas  or  oil  lamps 
on  the  principle  of  the  "  Queen's  reading  lamp  "  are  equally 
serviceable.  To  those  in  constant  practice  the  limehght  is 
recommended  as  giving  the  best  illumination — the  electric 
light  being  not,  as  yet,  available  for  this  purpose. 


HOW  TO  USE  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  151 

A  handy,  inexpensive,  and  thoroughly  useful  apparatus 
(PI.  XXII.),  designed  by  Dr.  Tobold,  of  Berlin,  which 
answers  the  double  purpose  of  making  observations  upon 
others  as  well  as  upon  oneself,  is  shown  in  the  annexed 
cut,  and  may  be  had,  complete  in  case,  at  a  moderate  cost, 
from  Messrs.  Krohne  and  Sesemann,  Duke  Street,  Man- 
chester Square,  who  have,  at  our  desire,  provided  a  supply 
of  them. 

The  illustration,  in  a  large  measure,  speaks  for  itself, 
but  the  following  directions  may  be  of  service  to  the 
intending  laryngoscopist. 

1.  Direct  the  person  whose  throat  is  to  be  examined, 
and  of  whom  for  convenience'  sake  we  will  here  speak  as 
the  singer,  to  sit  erect,  with  the  knees  together,  and  the 
head  sUghtly  thrown  back. 

2.  Arrange  the  lamp  so  that  it  is  distant  about  nine 
inches  to  the  right  of  his  head  and  in  a  line  with 
his  ear. 

3.  Sit  opposite  him  and  adjust  the  reflector,  which  is 
attached  to  the  light-condenser  by  a  metal  arm,  so  that 
your  right  eye  looks  through  the  hole  in  the  centre. 

4.  Direct  the  singer  to  open  the  mouth  widely. 

5.  Throw  the  reflected  hght  on  to  the  back  of  his 
throat. 

6.  Take  the  laryngeal  mirror  in  the  right  hand,  and 
slightly  warm  it  over  the  lamp.  The  glass  will  be  covered 
with  a  film  of  moisture,  and  the  instant  this  has  disappeared 
and  the  mirror  becomes  clear  it  is  of  the  right  temperature. 
Its  warmth  should,  however,  always  be  tested  by  placing 
the  back  of  it  against  your  hand  or  cheek. 

7.  Hold  the  mirror  like  a  pen  in  the  right  hand,  and 
introduce  it  into  the  mouth  of  the  singer  with  the  reflect- 
ing surface  directed  downwards. 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


8.  Be  careful  not  to  touch  the  tongue  with  the  mirror 
in  introducing  it. 

9.  Rest  the  back  of  the  mirror  against  the  uvula,  so  as 
to  press  it  gently  upwards  and  backwards,  but  do  not  force 
it  against  the  back  of  the  pharynx,  or  retching  and 
gagging  will  be  the  result. 

10.  Turn  your  hand  slightly  to  the  right,  so  as  to  keep 
it  out  of  the  line  of  view. 

11.  Direct  the  singer  to  take  a  deep  inspiration,  and 
then  to  produce  tone  on  the  vowel  a,  as  in  the  word  sad. 

1 2.  Let  each  examination  be  short ;  the  mirror  may 
then  be  introduced  six  or  eight  times  without  incon- 
venience, whereas  if  the  mirror  be  too  long  retained  spasms 
or  nausea  may  be  produced  and  put  a  stop  to  further 
examination. 

A  view  of  the  larynx  should  thus  be  obtained,  and  the 
vocal  ligaments,  easily  recognisable  by  their  pearly-white 
colour,  should  be  plainly  seen,  and  their  movements 
observed.  But  if  the  operator  does  not,  at  first,  see  more 
than  the  back  of  the  tongue  or  the  upper  rim  of  the  lid,  he 
must  not  hastily  conclude  that  this  is  all  that  can  be  seen 
in  the  case  before  him.  He  should,  on  the  contrary, 
repeat  the  experiment  upon  the  same  person  day  after  day 
until  at  last  he  succeeds,  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  proportion  of  cases  in  which  a  fairly  skilled  laryngo- 
scopist  is  unable  to  get  a  satisfactory  view  of  the  interior 
of  the  larynx  is  very  small  indeed. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  it  is  necessary  to  cause  the 
singer  to  put  out  his  tongue,  and  then  to  hold  it  with  a 
cloth  in  order  to  get  a  good  laryngeal  image ;  but  this  is  a 
great  mistake.  The  tongue  and  the  larynx  being  inti- 
mately connected,  any  movement  of  the  former  cannot 
fail  to  affect  the  latter ;  if,  therefore,  the  investigations  with 


HOIV  TO  USE  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  153 

the  laryngoscope  are  to  be  of  any  value  with  regard  to  the 
hidden  configurations  of  the  voice-box  in  the  production 
of  tone,  the  formation  of  the  "  registers,"  &c.,  it  is  clear 
that  no  contortions  of  any  sort  must  be  indulged  in.  They 
might  help  to  show  the  larynx  in  making  some  noise,  but 
it  would  be  pointed  out,  and  with  great  force,  that  such 
revelations  are  of  no  use.  The  tongue  must  remain  in  its 
natural  place,  and  if  the  singer  has  the  power,  which  he 
ought  to  have,  of  keeping  it  flat,  it  will  not  interfere  in  the 
least  with  the  proposed  observations.  This  is  shown  very 
plainly  in  the  photograph  printed  as  the  frontispiece  of  this 
book,  with  the  mirror  at  the  back  of  the  throat,  in  which 
a  complete  image  of  the  larynx  in  singing  is  reflected,  while 
the  tongue  lies  so  flat  as  to  be  practically  not  visible. 

We  have  thus  demonstrated  the  utter  groundlessness 
of  the  objection  urged  in  some  quarters  with  so  much 
persistency,  that  all  observations  with  the  laryngoscope  are 
untrustworthy  on  account  of  the  contortions  they  involve. 
In  medical  practice,  it  is  true,  patients  are  generally  directed 
to  put  out  the  tongue  and  to  hold  the  tip  of  it  between 
the  index  finger  and  thumb.  But  patients  are  not  always 
singers,  and  the  object  in  their  case  is  to  observe  disease,  and 
not  a  physiological  process.  The  practitioner  consequently 
avails  himself  of  every  help  to  remove  difficulties,  though 
even  in  medical  examinations  it  is  now  found  that  the  pro- 
truding of  the  tongue  is  by  no  means  indispensable,  and 
that  in  some  instances  it  even  defeats  its  own  object. 

Beginners  in  laryngoscopy  will  do  well  to  practise  upon 
a  model  of  some  sort  and  then  upon  themselves  before 
asking  another  to  submit  to  the  operation.  A  great  deal 
is  said  about  the  sensitiveness  of  persons'  throats,  and  that 
they  cannot  endure  the  touch  of  the  mirror;  but  we  have 
no  hesitation   in   asserting  that    inexperience    and    conse- 


154  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

quent  clumsiness  on  the  part  of  the  operator  are  the  chief 
cause  of  failure,  and  that  his  difficulties  will  diminish  in 
proportion  as  his  dexterity  increases. 

A  *'  Laryngo-Phantom "  by  Dr.  Isenschmid,  of  Mu- 
nich, will  greatly  facilitate  preliminary  practice,  and  may 
also  be  had  from  Messrs.  Krohne  and  Sesemann.  It  con- 
sists of  an  imitation  of  the  throat,  and  "is  intended  to 
familiarise  students  with  as  many  of  the  details  con- 
nected with  the  use  of  the  laryngoscope  as  it  is  possible 
to  learn  before  the  application  of  the  instrument  to  the 
living  subject."  A  number  of  little  paintings,  represent- 
ing different  laryngoscopic  appearances,  may  be  slipped 
into  this  phantom  unknown  to  the  student,  who  has  to 
inspect  them  by  the  ordinary  process.  This  phantom  may 
be  put  in  place  of  the  singer,  as  represented  on  Plate 
XXII.,  and  will  be  found  to  afford  excellent  practice. 

For  auto-laryngoscopy — that  is  to  say,  making  laryngo- 
scopic investigations  upon  oneself — the  student  takes  the 
place  of  the  phantom  just  indicated.  He  proceeds  in  every 
particular  with  himself  as  on  p.  151  he  was  advised  to 
proceed  upon  others.  A  little  square  mirror,  supplied  for 
this  purpose  with  the  laryngoscope,  must  be  attached  to 
the  reflector,  and  in  this  square  mirror  the  student  will  see 
a  reproduction  of  the  image  in  the  laryngeal  mirror  in  his 
own  throat.  This  image  may  also  be  seen  quite  distinctly 
by  another  person  taking  the  place  of  the  observer,  and 
looking  through  the  space  between  the  reflector  and  the 
square  mirror. 

It  will  thus  be  noticed  that  the  laryngoscope  here 
recommended  is  a  very  complete  little  instrument,  and 
may  be  used  for  three  purposes,  namely — i,  for  observa- 
tions upon  a  second  person ;  2,  for  observations  upon 
oneself;  and,  3,  for  demonstrating  results  to  others. 


HOIV  TO  USE  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  155 

Where  the  object  is  only  self-observation  and  demon- 
stration another  instrument  may  be  used  which  was 
designed  by  the  late  Dr.  Foulis,  of  Glasgow.  ,  It  is 
simple,  useful,  and  cheap  ;  but  it  is  not,  as  already  hinted, 
available  for  examining  another  person  s  throat.  It  con- 
sists of  a  plain  stand  on  which  is  placed  a  glass  globe  filled 
with  water,  the  whole  being  surmounted  by  a  small  square 
mirror.     The  rays  from  a  lamp  or  candle  placed  behind 


XXIIL— Dr.7 Foulis*s  Auto-Laryngoscope. 

the  globe  are  concentrated  into  the  open  mouth  of  the 
student,  who  sits  in  front  of  it,  holding  the  laryngeal 
mirror  at  the  back  of  his  throat  in  the  manner  already 
described,  and  he  himself  seeing  the  resulting  image  in 
the  larger  mirror  fixed  to  the  globe.  This  apparatus, 
as  shown  in  Plate  XXIIL,  including  a  throat-mirror, 
and  safely  packed  for  transmission,  may  be  had  from 
Messrs.  W.  B.  Hilliard  and  Sons  of  Glasgow,  at  an  almost 
nominal  price. 


156  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


THE  TEACHINGS  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE. 

The  first  thing  we  see  after  having  introduced  the  mirror 
into  the  throat  is  the  back  of  the  tongue,  which  presents  a 
more  or  less  uneven  appearance  and  is  covered  with  gray, 
and  sometimes  elevated,  spots.  We  then  notice  the  lid 
or  epiglottis  which  greatly  varies  in  shape  and  position,  and 
which  is  connected  with  the  tongue  by  an  elastic  band 
forming  a  sort  of  bridge,  on  either  side  of  which  there  is 
a  little  hollow.  The  lid  in  many  instances  hangs  over  the 
larynx,  thus  hiding  a  great  part  of  it  from  view ;  in  which 
case  nothing  more  than,  perhaps,  the  pyramids  will  be 
visible. 

The  result  is  often  the  same  although  the  lid  is  not 
pendant ;  in  that  case  the  position  of  the  laryngeal  mirror 
is  at  fault  and  must  be  altered  until  a  perfect  view  is 
obtained.  But  even  when  the  lid  does  overshadow  the 
voice-box  in  a  position  of  rest  we  soon  find  that  it  rises 
during  respiration  as  also  in  pho nation,  particularly  in 
singing  the  vowel  a  as  in  the  word  sad^  which  puts  the 
whole  of  the  vocal  apparatus  in  the  most  favourable 
position  for  observation.  In  addition  to  this  in  auto- 
laryngoscopy  we  soon  get  a  great  deal  of  command  over 
the  lid  and  indeed  over  most  parts  of  the  voice-box,  and 
the  process  of  investigation  becomes  easier  in  every  way. 
It  may  be  added  that  soft,  veiled  tones  aflTord  the  best 
opportunity  for  investigation,  as  with  these  the  lid  is 
almost    perpendicular    and    the    vestibule    widely    open ; 


TEACHINGS  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE,  157 

while  in  louder  and  more  brilliant  tone  the  lid  falls  and 
the  vestibule  is  more  constricted. 

When  no  longer  hampered  by  difficulties  arising  from 
want  of  skill  and  experience  we  are  in  a  position  to  extend 
our  observations,  and  to  notice  the  following  particulars. 

The  colour  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  lid  is  of  a  warm 
pinkish  yellow,  resembling  that  of  the  inner  surface  of  the 
eyelids,  and  upon  it  may  frequently  be  observed  a  delicate 
network  of  fine  red  blood-vessels  which  in  some  cases  looks 
exceedingly  pretty.  The  under  surface  of  the  lid  is  always 
of  a  deeper  colour  than  the  upper  surface  ;  and  the  cushion 
(PL  XV.,  p.  72),  which  shows  itself  at  the  lower  extremity, 
is  of  a  bright  red. 

Immediately  below  the  free  part  of  the  lid  there  are  the 
two  folds  of  mucous  membrane  connecting  it  with  the 
pyramids,  which  we  know  (PI.  XV.)  under  the  name  of  the 
ary-epiglottic  folds.  They  are  thick  when  relaxed  and  thin 
when  tense.  In  the  hinder  ends  of  these  folds  there  are 
four  little  elevations,  caused  by  the  cartilages  of  Wrisberg 
and  those  of  Santorini  (the  "  buffers ")  which  are  em- 
bedded here.  Connecting  the  pyramids  behind  there  is 
another  fold  of  mucous  membrane  completing  the  upper 
rim  of  that  tube  described  on  p.  73  as  the  vestibule  of  the 
larynx. 

A  little  below  this  there  are  the  pocket  ligaments, 
formerly  called  false  vocal  cords,  and  nowadays,  in  medical 
phraseology,  ventricular  bands  (PI.  XV.).  The  colour  of 
the  ary-epiglottic  folds,  as  well  as  of  the  pocket  ligaments, 
is  that  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  cheeks,  while 
the  portion  covering  the  cartilages  has  a  colour  resembling 
that  of  the  gums. 

Beneath  the  pocket  ligaments  there  are  the  entrances  to 
the  pockets  or  ventricles    of   the  larynx.     At  first  sight 


158  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

they  show  only  as  dark  lines  between  the  pocket  ligaments 
and  the  vocal  ligaments ;  but  on  turning  the  mirror  so  as 
to  get  a  lateral  view  these  spaces  will  be  seen  to  be  much 
larger  than  they  appear  when  looking  directly  down  the 
centre  of  the  larynx. 

Below  the  entrances  of  the  laryngeal  pockets,  and  in  fact 
forming  the  floor  of  them,  we  see  the  vocal  ligaments, 
which  glisten  like  mother-of-pearl,  thus  forming  so  strong 
a  contrast  with  the  more  or  less  pinkish  colour  of  all  the 
surrounding  parts  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  mistake 
them. 


XXIV. — Laryngeal  Mirror,  showing  the  Reversion  of  the  Reflected 

Image. 

When  the  vocal  ligaments  are  separated  in  the  act  of 
breathing  we  can,  with  a  strong,  well-directed  light,  look 
below  them,  and  see  a  portion  of  the  ring  cartilage  and 
some  rings  of  the  windpipe.  In  a  few  rare  and  exception- 
ally favourable  cases  we  can  see  right  to  the  bottom  of  the 
windpipe,  where  we  notice  its  division  into  the  two  branches 
entering  the  lungs. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  laryngeal  image  is  a 
reflection  in  a  mirror,  and  is,  therefore,  in  some  respects 
reversed.  What  this  means  will  be  best  understood 
from  Plate  XXIV.,  showing  the  letter  V,  which  corre- 
sponds with  the  glottis  as  it  is  placed   in  the  body  (see 


TEACHINGS  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  159 

PI.  XIII.,  p.  66)^  and  the  reflection  of  it  in  a  mirror  where 
it  appears  reversed.  The  thick  stroke  of  the  original 
letter  is  on  the  left  of  the  observer,  and  so  it  is  in  the 
reflection;  the  thin  stroke  of  the  original  letter  is  on 
the  right  of  the  observer,  and  so  it  is  in  the  reflection. 
But  apart  from  this  the  reflection  is  the  exact  opposite  of 
the  original. 

It  is  the  same  with  the  laryngeal  image.  The  singer's 
right  vocal  ligament,  which,  of  course,  is  on  the  observer's 
left,  is  also  on  the  left  in  the  mirror,  and  the  singer's  left 
vocal  ligament,  which  is  on  the  observer's  right,  is  also  on 
the  right  in  the  mirror.  It  is  plain  that  this  equally 
applies  to  the  pocket  ligaments,  to  the  ary-epiglottic  folds, 
and  to  everything  else  which  exists  on  both  sides  of  the 
larynx.  But  with  regard  to  front  and  back,  the  image  in 
the  mirror  is  reversed  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the 
letter  V  in  PI.  XXIV. 

It  is  necessary  to  be  perfectly  clear  on  this  point,  in 
order  to  understand  why  the  pointed  part  of  the  glottis 
on  PI.  XIII.  is  below,  while,  in  the  laryngeal  pictures  which 
follow,  the  same  pointed  part  is  above.  This  is  a  matter 
which,  to  our  knowledge,  has  created  great  confusion  in 
the  minds  of  several  readers  of  Mr.  Behnke's  '  Mechanism 
of  the  Human  Voice,'  and  we  are  anxious,  therefore,  to 
avoid  this  difficulty  in  the  present  instance. 

The  reader  who  has  given  us  his  attention  so  far  is 
sufficiently  famihar  with  details  to  conceive  a  true  picture 
of  the  process  of  voice  formation  which  we  are  now  going 
to  describe. 

Plate  XXV.  gives  a  laryngeal  image  with  the  glottis  open 
in  a  state  of  rest.  T  represents  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue;  L  the  lid;  W,  W,  the  cartilages  of  Wrisberg;  and 
S,  S,  the  cartilages  of  Santorini.     The  lid  somewhat  covers 


i6o  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

the  larynx,  so  that  we  get  but  a  partial  view  of  the  vocal 
ligaments,  V,  V,  and  between  these  we  notice  some  rings 
of  the  windpipe.  While  the  vocal  ligaments  are  thus 
separated  the  air  passes  between  them  silently  in  respiration, 
and  the  chink  of  the  glottis  is  the  more  enlarged  the  more 
deeply  we  breathe,  or  vice  versa. 

Plate  XXVI.  shows  the  laryngeal  image  in  a  deep  and 
vigorous    inspiration.      The    glottis    is    here   very   widely 


^^,'#  w^^ 


XXV.— Gentle  Breathin 


XXVI.— Deep  Breathing.  XXVII.— Tone  Production. 

Laryngeal  Images. 

T.  Tongue.  P,  P.  Pocket  ligaments. 

V,  V.  Vocal  ligaments.  -B.  Bifurcation  of  the  windpipe. 

W,  "W.  Cartilages  of  Wrisberg.  C.  Cushion  of  the  lid. 

L.  Lid.  S,  S.  Cartilages  of  Santorini. 

opened,  and  we   are  enabled  even  to  see  the  opening  of 
the  bronchial  tubes  B  at  the  bottom  of  the  windpipe. 

If  we  sing  a  tone,  we  see  the  pyramids,  with  the  vocal 
ligaments  attached  to  them,  close  with  great  rapidity,  and 
the  pocket  ligaments  also  move  towards  the  centre.  But 
these,  in  a  state  of  health,  nevernittt  in  phonation,  so  that 
we  always  see  the  broad  white  vocal  hgaments  forming, 
as  it  were,  the  floor  of  the  cavity  revealed  to  us.  The 
vocal  ligaments  are  then  thrown  in  vibrations  by  the  air 
forced  against  them  from  below,  as  described  on  page  59. 


TEACHINGS  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  i6i 

The  result  is  tone.  As  soon  as  we  cease  singing  and  take 
an  inspiration,  the  pyramids,  with  the  vocal  ligaments,  fly- 
asunder  again,  and  we  see  once  more  the  triangular  space 
between  them,  as  before.  From  these  movements  we 
learn,  as  a  first  lesson,  that  the  approximation  of  the 
vocal  ligaments  is  an  indispensable  condition  of  tone 
production. 

But  upon  studying  these  movements  carefully  we  further 
observe  that  the  glottis  may  close  under  different  con- 
ditions, each  of  which  is  followed  by  a  different  result. 

1.  The  vocal  ligaments  meet  after  the  air  has  com- 
menced to  pass  between  them  ;  this  constitutes  an  aspirate, 
or  in  other  words  the  sound  of  the  letter  h.  The  mechan- 
ism by  which  it  is  produced  is  called  the  "  glide  of  the 
glottis,"  and  a  further  attribute  of  it  is  this,  that  the  vocal 
ligaments  are  often  not  held  together  sufficiently  tightly, 
thus  allowing  more  air  to  pass  than  is  necessary  for  the 
process  of  phonation.  The  tone  consequently  not  only 
lacks  a  prompt,  decisive  beginning,  but  it  also  suffers  from 
an  admixture  of  "wild''  air  which  makes  it  breathy  or 
"  woolly."  This  kind  of  tone  production  is,  unfortunately, 
very  common. 

2.  The  vocal  ligaments  meet  before  the  air  has  had  time 
to  reach  them,  the  pyramids  come  into  close  contact  with 
their  inner  surfaces  and  the  vocal  ligaments  are  held  firmly 
together.  The  gate  is  securely  shut,  the  air  accumulates 
below,  until  the  pressure  becomes  great  enough  to  over- 
come the  resistance  above.  Then  the  gate  is  forced  open, 
and  the  action  is  accompanied  by  a  distinct  click.  The 
mechanism  by  which  this  is  accomplished  is  called  the 
"check  of  the  glottis."  It  is  generally  followed  by  a 
continued  tight  closure  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  so  that  the 
air    has,  from  the   beginning  to  the  end,  an   unnecessary 

M 


i62  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

amount  of  opposition  to  overcome.  This  also  interferes 
with  the  tone,  and  tends  to  make  it  hard  and  metallic. 

3.  The  vocal  ligaments  meet  just  at  the  very  moment 
when  the  air  strikes  against  them  ;  they  are,  moreover,  not 
pressed  together  more  tightly  than  is  necessary.  No 
preliminary  escape  takes  place  as  in  No.  i,  and  no  obstacle 
has  to  be  overcome  as  in  No.  2 ;  but  the  attack  is  clear 
and  decisive,  and  the  tone  consequently  gets  a  proper 
start.  The  mechanism  by  which  this  is  done  is  the  "  coup 
de  glotte  "  or  "  shock  of  the  glottis."  The  closure  of  the 
vocal  ligaments  being  maintained  at  the  most  suitable 
degree,  the  tone  production  is  carried  on,  so  far  as  the 
glottis  is  concerned,  under  the  most  favourable  conditions, 
and  the  result  is  the  best  which  can  be  obtained. 

There  are  four  ways  of  ending  a  tone : — 

1.  The  glottis  opens  suddenly,  and  before  the  expiratory 
effort  quite  ceases.  In  this  case  the  tone  is  followed 
by  a  slight  wind-rush,  which  is  frequently  distinctly 
audible. 

2.  The  larynx  closes  as  in  the  act  of  pressing;  this 
causes  a  snap  which  is  the  louder  and  the  uglier  the  more 
abruptly  it  is  made,  and  the  popular  description  of  it  is 
that  the  tone  has  "  stuck  in  the  throat." 

3.  The  expiratory  effort  ceases  while  the  vocal  ligaments 
remain  approximated. 

4.  The  expiratory  effort  ceases  while  the  glottis  opens 
exactly  at  the  same  moment. 

We  will  now  study  the  movements  of  the  larynx  in  the 
production  of  different  pitches  as  revealed  in  the  laryngo- 
scope, and  this  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  the  various 
"  registers."  We  shall  have  to  refer  to  this  subject  again 
in  the  chapter  on  teaching,  and  we  here  propose,  therefore, 
to  confine  ourselves  simply  to  a  description  of  the  physio- 


TEACHINGS  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE:  ---         163 

logical  alterations  involved  in  the  matter,  without  entering 
into  any  arguments. 

We  start  with  our  definition,  according  to  which 
"  a  register  consists  of  a  series  of  tones  which  are  pro- 
duced by  the  same  mechanism  "  (Behnke,  op.  cit.,  p.  86),  and 
we  will  endeavour  to  show  the  variations  which  take  place 
in  the  voice-box  by  passing  in  review  the  different  classes  of 
voice,  commencing  with  the  bass,  and  leaving  off  with  the 
soprano.  When  a  bass  sings  his  lowest  tones,  very  little  is 
to  be  seen  of  the  glottis  except  its  back  part,  because  the 
lid  hangs  over  the  larynx,  and  hides  the  front  part  of  it 


XXVIII.— Laryngeal  Image— Lower  Thick  Register. 

T,  T.  Tongue.  S,  S.  Cartilages  of  Santorini. 

P,  P.  Pocket  ligaments.  V,  V.  Vocal  ligaments. 

L.  Lid.  W,  W.  Cartilages  of  Wrisberg. 

from  view.  This  difficulty  may,  to  a  large  extent,  be  over- 
come by  practice,  which  enables  us  to  get  control  over  the 
lid  and  to  raise  it.  We  have  also  had  the  opportunity  of 
observing  instances  in  which,  even  in  the  lowest  tones,  a 
large  portion  of  the  vocal  ligaments  was  always  visible,  and 
we  remember  particularly  the  case  of  a  gentleman  in 
Scotland  as  the  most  favourable  one  v/hich  has  ever  come 
under  our  notice.  Under  such  exceptional  circumstances 
we  see  that  in  the  lowest  tones,  commencing,  we  will  say, 

at  ^ — [—  ,  the  hindermost  points  of  the  pyramids   are 

closely  approximated,  and  that  there  is  a  slit  of  an  elhptical 
shape  between  the  vocal  ligaments. 

M  2 


i64      -^-m^         VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

We  have  already  more  than  once  called  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  pocket  ligaments  never  meet  in  phonation, 
and  they  are  here  seen  so  widely  apart  that  the  vocal  liga- 
ments appear  as  two  very  broad  white  strips  which  are 
agitated  through  their  whole  length,  breadth,  and  thickness 
by  full  loose  vibrations  which  in  the  production  of  these 
deep  tones  are  sufficiently  slow  to  be  most  clearly  and 
distinctly  visible.  The  elliptical  shape  of  the  vocal  chink, 
in  this  state  of  complete  relaxation  of  the  vocal  ligaments, 
is  in  exact  accordance  with  the  curve  of  the  shield-pyramid 
muscle,  as  shown  in  PI.  X.,  p.  60.     After  the  singer  has 


XXIX.— Laryngeal  Image— Upper  Thick  Register. 

T,  T.  Tongue.  S,  S.  Cartilages  of  Santorini. 

P,  P.  Pocket  ligaments.  V,  V.  Vocal  ligaments. 

L.  Lid.  W,  W.  Cartilages  of  Wrisberg. 


gone  a  few  tones  up  the  scale,  the  vocal  processes  of  the 
pyramids  commence  to  be  visible  by  pointing  more  and 
more  inwards,  until  at  last  they  meet.  By  this  time  the 
elliptical  shape  of  the  vocal  chink  has  gradually  disappeared 
and  become  linear,  while  between  the  pyramids  there  is  a 
little  triangular  space,  with  its  points  towards  the  front, 
which  gets  smaller  by  degrees  as  the  singer  continues  to  go 
up  the  scale,  until  it  quite  disappears  upon  his  reaching 

(g);   I       .      It    is,   however,   worthy    of    notice   that    this 

triangular  space,  in  many  bass  voices,  closes  very  much 
earlier,  and  that  in  baritone  and  tenor  voices  it  is 
frequently  never  visible  at  all.     Meanwhile  we  observe  that 


TEACHINGS  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  165 

the  lid  rises  with  the  pitch  of  the  voice,  so  that  we  see  more 
and  more  the  higher  the  singer  ascends  the  scale.  It  now 
becomes  obvious  that  the  vocal  ligaments  are  being  con- 
siderably stretched,  a  fact  which  is  corroborated  by  the 
diminution  and  eventual  total  disappearance  of  the  aperture 
between  the  ring  and  the  shield  (PI.  VII.,  p.  52),  which 
was  widely  open  in  the  production  of  low  tones. 

The  bass  having  by  this  time  reached  the  end  of  his 
compass,  we  proceed  to  study  those  of  his  tones  which 
belong   also   to  other  voices  ;    let   us    say  in  a  tenor  the 

range    upwards    from    ^'    J     ;    in    a    contralto    upwards 


from  ^— p=  ;  and  in  a  soprano  upwards  from  ^'   ' 


and  we  find  that  they  are  in  all  voices  produced  by  precisely 
the  safne  mechanism,  namely^  by  vibrations  of  the  vocal 
ligaments  through  their  whole  length,  breadth,  and  thick- 
ness. The  vibrations  being  much  quicker  than  in  the 
lowest  tones  of  the  bass  voice  it  follows,  of  course,  that 
they  are  not  so  full  and  loose ;  but  they  are  nevertheless 
plainly  discernible.  We  must  also  bear  in  mind  that  the 
vocal  ligaments  in  the  production  of  these  tones,  as  we 
shall  more  fully  discuss  presently,  are  of  great  bulk  and 
thickness.  We  will,  therefore,  adopting  the  terms  of  the 
late  Mr.  John  Curwen,  and  leaving  a  further  justification 
of  our  choice  for  a  future  occasion,  speak  of  this  series  of 
tone  as  the  "  thick  register."  If  then,  for  the  present,  we 
leave   subdivisions   out   of  consideration   we  find  that  all 

tones  of  the  htiman  voice  up  to   ^  ,  whether  sung  by  a 

*  Tenor  music  is  now  generally  written  in  the  treble  clef  an  octave  higher 
than  really  sung.  We  have,  therefore,  in  order  to  prevent  misunderstand- 
ings about  the  actual  pitch  of  the  tones  here  referred  to,  so  far  noted  them 
all  in  the  bass  clef. 


1 66  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

bass,  tenor,  contralto^  or  soprano,  are  produced  in  the  thick 
register'' 

As  the  various  voices  went  up  the  scale  we  noticed  that 
the  vocal  ligaments  became  more  and  more  stretched. 
When  we  now  watch  the  tenor,  contralto,  and  soprano  as 


they  approach  the    /k    J-  ,  which  we  have  just  indicated 


as  the  average  limit  of  the  thick  register,  we  perceive  that 
the  tension,  not  only  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  but  also  of 
all  surrounding  parts,  is  getting  very  great,  and  if  this 
mechanism  is  carried  higher  still  the  strain  upon  the  vocal 
organ  increases  to  such  an  extent  that  it  looks  as  though 
it  were  going  to  burst,  and  its  pinkish  colour  changes 
more  and  more  into  red.  These  appearances  are  not  so 
marked  in  the  soprano  as  in  contralto  and  tenor  ;  the  bass 
we  leave  out  of  the  question,  because  its  average  limit  is 
below  the  point  just  indicated. 

If  tenor,  contralto,  and   soprano  wish  to  sing  without 


straining  beyond   ^— -f-     (remember  that  this  tone  for 


the  tenor  voice  is  generally  written  an  octave  higher),  they 
have  to  change  the  mechanism,  or  in  other  words  they 
must  sing  in  a  different  register. 

When  this  occurs  the  following  alterations  take  place : 
the  lid  is  more  raised  than  before,  and  we  consequently 
get  a  complete  view  of  the  larynx,  so  much  so  that  we 
even  see  the  cushion  of  the  lid  described  on  p.  72,  and  the 
insertions  of  the  vocal  ligaments  in  the  shield  cartilage. 
The  vestibule  seems  longer  and  narrower,  and  the  ary- 
epiglottic  folds  (PI.  XV.,  page  72)  thinner;  the  pocket 
ligaments  are  closer  together,  and  the  entrances  to  the 
pockets  less  marked  than  before.    The  vocal  ligaments  seem 


TEACHINGS  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE,  167 

quite  still,  and  their  tone-producing  vibrations  appear  to  be 
confined  to  the  thin,  inner  edges.  But  more :  the  vocal 
ligaments,  by  the  process  explained  on  p.  64,  are  made 
much  thinner  than  they  were  in  the  thick  register. 

This  is  almost  equal  to  the  insertion  of  a  new  set  of 
tonguelets,  and  fully  accounts  for  the  remarkable  diminu- 
tion of  volume  which  here  takes  place  in  all  natural  and 
uncultivated  voices.  The  alteration  in  the  bulk  of  the 
vocal  Hgaments  can  be  demonstrated  to  the  eye  by  illumi- 
nating the  voice-box,  not,  as  usual  in  laryngoscopy,  by 
throwing  the  light  into  it  from  above,  but  by  allowing  a 


XXX.— Laryngeal  Image— Lower  Thin  Register. 

T,  T.  Tongue.  S,  S.  Cartilages  of  Santorini. 

P,  P.  Pocket  ligaments.  V,  V.  Vocal  ligaments. 

L.  Lid.  W,  W.  Cartilages  of  Wrisberg. 

Strong  light  to  shine  through  its  lower  part  from  the 
outside,  and  then  making  observations  with  the  laryngeal 
mirror  in  the  ordinary  manner.  This  process  is  particu- 
larly successful  in  the  case  of  very  lean  individuals,  and  it 
shows  the  vocal  ligaments  to  be  almost  transparent,  while 
in  the  thick  register  they  are  much  more  opaque. 

Mr.  Curwen,  therefore,  in  calling  this  the  "thin  register," 
hit  upon  a  singularly  appropriate  name,  though  at  the 
time  he  decided  upon  it  he  had  no  idea  of  the  new  and 
great  significance  it  has  since  acquired  by  the  experiment 
just  detailed. 

The  foregoing  change  is  accompanied  by  a  great  feeling 


i68  .     VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH.  v 

of  relief,  for  the  strain  the  voices  experienced  in  carrying 
the  thick  register  beyond  its  natural  limit  is  removed,  and 
they  now  sing  with  the  greatest  ease.  The  change  is 
further  indicated  by  a  re-opening  of  the  ring-shield  aperture 
which  had  quite  disappeared  in  the  upper  tones  of  the 
thick  register. 

If  the  voices  continue  to  sing  in  the  thin  register  we 
observe  that  the  slit  between  the  vocal  ligaments  is  linear, 
and  that  the  pitch  is  evidently  raised  by  the  ligaments 
being  stretched.  This  fact  is  corroborated  by  the  state  of 
the  ring-shield  aperture,  which  again  commences  to  become 
smaller    and    smaller,    until    at   last    it    once    more   quite 


XXXI.— Laryngeal  Image.— Upper  Thin  Register.    {Female  Larynx.) 

disappears.     In  this  manner  the  voice  is  carried  to  about 
^    f~ ,  where  a   new    change   is    found   compulsory  if 


straining  and  forcing  is  to  be  avoided,  and  we  now  see  an 
elliptical  slit  between  the  vocal  ligaments,  as  in  the  accom- 
panying diagram,  which  slit  is  gradually  reduced  in'  size  as 

contralto  and  soprano  sing  up  from 

It  is,  however,  worthy  of  notice  that  this  mechanism  may 
be  resorted  to  almost  from  the  beginning  of  the  thin 
register,  and  that  even  tenors  may  use  it,  and  do  use  it,  in 
the  production  of  the  few  tones  just  above  the  thick 
register,  which  form  the  highest  part  of  their  compass  as 
applied  to   modern    music.     But  tones  so    produced    are 


TEACHINGS  OF  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE.  169 

very  poor  and  unsatisfactory,  and  they  constitute  what 
is  commonly  called  "the  falsetto  voice,"  of  which  more 
will  be  said  in  the  chapter  on  teaching. 

We  now  come  to  a  last  change,  which  brings  us  to  the 
highest    part    of    the    soprano    voice    commencing   with 

which    Mr.    Curwen    has    called    the    "  small 

register,"  because  the  action  of  the  vocal  ligaments  is 
confined  to  a  small  part  of  them,  and  this  mechanism 
consists  in  the  formation  of  an  oval  orifice  in  the  front 


XXXII. — Laryngeal  Image — Small  Register.     (Female  Larynx.) 

part  of  the  glottis  which  contracts  the  more  the  higher  the 
voice  ascends,  the  vocal  ligaments  being,  in  the  hinder 
part,  pressed  together  so  tightly  that  scarcely  any  trace  of 
a  slit  remains.  No  vibrations  are  here  noticeable,  while 
they  are,  on  the  contrary,  so  very  marked  in  the  anterior 
portion  as  sometimes  to  blur  the  outlines  of  the  orifice  to 
a  considerable  extent. 

The  supposed  mechanism  of  the  small  register  has  been 
explained  on  p.  76,  but  it  must  be  confessed  that  the 
evidence  in  support  of  it  is  of  the  slenderest  kind.  Nor 
is  this  mechanism  at  all  indispensable,  and  enough  is 
now  known  of  the  power  of  the  shield-pyramid  muscles 
to  contract  in  a  great  variety  of  ways  to  justify  the 
conclusion  that  their  action  is  quite  sufficient  in  itself 
to  cause  the  formation  of  the  orifice  described.  We 
can,  at  any  rate,  vouch  for  the  existence  of  it,  as  we 
have    repeatedly,    and  independently  of  each    other,  had 


I/O  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

opportunities  of  observing    it    in  women    as  well    as    in 
boys. 

We  have  thus  seen  that  there  are,  broadly  speaking, 
three  registers  in  the  human  voice,  namely,  the  thick,  the 
thin,  and  the  small.  We  have  also  found  certain  indica- 
tions, more  or  less  vague,  of  alterations  in  some  degree 
accounting  for  subdivision,  called  the  lower  thick,  the  upper 
thick,  the  lower  thin,  and  the  upper  thin.  These  registers 
are  plainly  shown  in  Plate  XXXIIL,  and  so  far  as  our 
present  chapter  is  concerned  there  is  no  more  to  be  said 
about  them. 

We  have  also  noticed  the  visible  straining  which  takes 
place  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  carry  the  thick  register 
beyond  its  natural  limit ;  and  we  must  add  that  similar 
signs  make  their  appearance,  though  not  always  so  clearly 
marked,  when  any  of  the  other  registers  are  forced  up  too 
high. 

Lastly,  we  are  anxious  to  account  for  the  differences  in 
the  description,  by  various  observers,  of  the  laryngoscopic 
appearances  in  the  process  of  voice  production,  and  we 
cannot  do  this  better  than  by  making  the  subjoined  extract 
from  a  most  admirable  treatise  on  the  voice  by  Dr. 
Gruetzner,  of  Breslau.  ('  Physiology  of  Voice  and  Speech,' 
by  Dr.  P.  Gruetzner,  in  Dr.  L.  Hermann's  '  Handbook  of 
Physiology.'  Leipzig:  F.  C.  W.  Vogel,  1879.  Vol.  L, 
Part  IL,  p.  112.) 

"About  the  manner  in  which  these  small  laryngeal 
muscles  take  part  in  the  production  of  high  and  low  tones 
there  are  different,  and  to  some  extent  contradictory, 
opinions.  It  is  certain  from  all  these  statements,  and  from 
my  own  observations,  that  there  are  indeed  individual 
differences  which  are  the  greater  the  more  one  has  to  deal 
either  with  trained  singers   or  with  non-singers,  or  with 


XXXIII. — The  Registers  of  the  Human  Voice. 

From  Behnkes  '  Mechanism  of  the  Human  Voice.^     By  permission  of  Messrs. 
J.  Ctcruien  &=  Sons. 


172  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

*  nature-singers,'  and  the  more  the  voice-boxes  under 
investigation  originally  dilFer  in  size  and  shape. 

"There  are  at  our  disposal  the  following  entirely  different 
means  for  changing  the  pitch  of  our  voice  : — 

"  I.  The  altered  longitudinal  tension  of  the  vocal  liga- 
ments brought  about  by  the  different  actions  of  the 
stretching  muscles,  and  of  their  antagonists.  - 

"  2.  The  shortening  of  the  vibrating  portions  of  the 
vocal  ligaments,  produced  by  the  pyramids  coming  more 
and  more  in  contact  with  their  inner  surfaces,  thereby 
reducing  the  parts  of  the  vocal  ligaments  which  are 
capable  of  vibrating,  just  as  the  violin  player  shortens 
the  string  by  putting  his  finger  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  bridge. 

"3.  "^Yit  alteration  of  the  shape ^  particularly  the  sharpen- 
ing or  blunting  of  the  vibrating  edges,  brought  about  by 
the  different  actions  of  certain  portions  of  the  shield- 
pyramid  muscles. 

"  4.  The  narrowing  or  broadening  of  the  vibrating 
edges  which  frequently  goes  hand  in  hand  with  this. 

"5.  Lastly,  the  different /r^i-^-^^r^  of  the  air  under  which 
the  chest  muscles  put  it  in  the  windpipe. 

"Now  in  accordance  with  the  way  in  which  a  singer 
gives  preference  to  one  mechanism  or  another  for  altering 
the  pitch  of  his  voice,  or  in  which  he  employs  different 
mechanisms  at  the  same  time  for  this  purpose,  the  image 
of  the  larynx  will,  of  course,  be  different  in  the  production 
of  either  high  or  low  tones." 


(     173     ) 


LARYNGEAL  PHOTOGRAPHS  AND  THEIR 
LESSONS. 

We  conclude   this    section    by  appending  on    page    178 
first  on  one  side    (PL  XXXIV.)  the  five  engravings   re- 
presenting   the    various    registers    of    the   human  voice, 
and    on    the   opposite   page    four    photographs    of    Mr. 
Behnke's  larynx  in  the  act  of  singing.     These  last  differ 
from  the  laryngeal  images  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
see  in  books  on  vocal  physiology,  and  indeed  from   our 
first  three  engraved  figures   of  the  registers,  which  were 
drawn  before  the  photographs  were  taken,  in  that,  on  the 
one  hand,  they  do  not  show  the  cushion  of  the  lid  which 
is  generally  depicted  in  engravings ;  and,  further,  that  they 
give    not   only    distinct   indications    of    the    cartilages    of 
Santorini     and    of    Wrisberg    on     the    summit    of   the 
pyramids,  but  also  a  sharp  outHne   of   the  bases  of  the 
pyramids. 

These  apparently  double  outlines  in  the  photographs 
for  a  long  while  greatly  perplexed  us,  and  we  did  not 
know  what  to  make  of  them.  We  first  conceived  the 
idea  that  they  were  due  to  double  reflection  in  the 
laryngeal  mirror,  one  on  the  surface  and  the  other  on  the 
silvered  back;  and  to  overcome  this  difliculty  we  had 
mirrors  silvered  on  the  surface ;  indeed  one  of  the  pictures 
in  the  group  is  taken  with  such  a  mirror.  But  the  result 
was  the  same  as  before,  and  we  now  tried  to  account  for  it 
by  a  shifting  of  the  laryngeal  mirror,  or  as  the  result  of 


174  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

the  Strong  vibrations  into  which  the  parts  were  thrown, 
though  in  either  case,  if  this  had  been  so,  the  hd,  the 
vocal  hgaments,  and  other  parts  ought  also  to  have  been 
doubled. 

In  fact,  we  tried  in  every  conceivable  way  to  account  for 
what  we  considered  a  blemish,  and  it  was  only  after  much 
needless  trouble  and  great  mutual  waste  of  time  that  the 
thought  struck  Mr.  Lennox  Browne  to  compare  one  of 
the  photographs  with  Mr.  Behnke's  own  larynx  as  seen  in 
the  ordinary  way,  and  he  then  discovered  that  the  photo- 
graph (as  we  might  have  been  sure  at  first)  was  right,  and 
the  conventional  image  wrong,  because  when  the  larynx 
is,  as  in  most  cases,  looked  into  from  in  front,  there  must 
be  double  outlines,  due  to  the  perspective  view  of  the 
interior  surface  of  the  pyramids.  The  extent  of  the 
portion  which  is  visible  will  largely  depend  upon  circum- 
stances. If  we  see  the  whole  under  surface  of  the  lid — 
that  is,  of  the  front  wall  of  the  funnel  of  the  voice-box 
— we  shall  obviously  expect  to  see  less  of  the  opposite 
side,  and  vice  versa.  In  our  photographs  the  cushion 
of  the  lid  and  the  front  insertion  of  the  vocal  ligaments 
are  not  seen.  Hence  we  get  a  full  view  in  perspective  of 
the  back  wall. 

Our  whole  experience  is  one  more  proof  of  the  way  in 
which  the  judgment  is  allowed  to  be  warped  and  the 
vision  to  be  distorted  by  things,  however  false,  which 
happen  to  be  customary  or  which  have  been  accepted  on 
the  fiat  of  another,  until  at  last  even  truth  itself  is  dis- 
believed when  it  is  accidentally  revealed  to  us. 

Two  of  our  photographs — namely,  the  frontispiece  and 
the  lower  of  the  two  "falsetto"  images — are  absolutely 
untouched,  and  we  have  not  even  interfered  with  some 
spots  on  the  teeth  and  on  the  back  of  the  throat  caused 


LARYNGEAL  PHOTOGRAPHS.  175 

by  moisture.  The  other  three  images  are  not  quite  in 
their  original  state,  because  the  glare  of  illumination  in 
photography  with  the  electric  light  interferes  with  clear 
definition  of  the  contrast  between  the  vocal  ligaments  and 
the  pocket  ligaments.  The  fact  that  the  photographs  are 
pictures  of  reflections  in  a  glass  mirror  also  accounts  to 
some  extent  for  this  defect. 

Mr.  Lennox  Browne  has  done  what  little  touching  there 
w^as  necessary  from  nature,  Mr.  Behnke  singing  the  same 
tones  he  sang  when  the  photos  were  taken,  and  we  do  not 
think,  looking  at  the  untouched  photographs,  that  any 
one  will  consider  our  supplementary  work  to  be  worth 
mentioning  further  than  as  an  answer  to  possible  objections 
from  such  few  as  prefer  to  remain  in  error  rather  than  to 
be  convinced  against  their  will. 

The  images  show  plainly  the  lid,  the  pocket  ligaments, 
the  cartilages  of  Santorini  and  of  Wrisberg,  the  bases  or 
inferior  borders  of  the  pyramids,  the  hollows  between  the 
pyramids  and  the  tongue-bone,  and,  in  two  instances,  even 
the  prominence  of  the  tongue-bone  itself.  When  it  is 
now  borne  in  mind  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  throat 
surgeon  only  gets  a  partial  view  of  the  voice-box,  and  that 
he  has  to  move  the  laryngeal  mirror  to  and  fro  in  order  to 
make  a  complete  inspection,  it  will  surely  be  granted  that 
it  would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  obtain  more 
perfect  laryngeal  photographs  than  those  here  appended ; 
for  in  them  are  seen,  in  one  picture,  not  only  a  complete 
image  of  the  voice-box  itself,  but  positively  some  parts 
outside  of  it. 

We  have  already,  in  another  place,  insisted  on  the 
completeness  with  which  these  photographs  dispose  of  the 
objection,  urged  ad  nauseam  against  all  observations  with 
the  laryngoscope,  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  them  except 


176  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

by  holding  the  protruding  tongue  of  the  singer  with  a 
napkin,  thereby  pulling  the  laryngeal  image  out  of  shape 
and  distorting  the  image.  We  admit  that  this  objection, 
if  true,  would  ha\^e  weight,  and  we  had  quite  recently 
under  our  joint  observation  a  case  in  point : — A  lady,  a 
talented  public  singer,  showed,  with  her  tongue  in  its 
natural  position,  the  upper  thin  and  the  small  register  so 
clearly  that  we  asked  her  permission  to  publish  them  in 
this  volume,  and  they  are  now  depicted  as  Figs.  XXXI. 
and  XXXII.,  and  repeated  as  D.  and  E.  on  p.  178.  As 
soon,  however,  as  we  attempted  to  hold  her  tongue  while 
making  our  investigations,  we  certainly  saw  the  vocal 
ligaments  and  their  surroundings,  but  every  trace  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  two  registers  just  mentioned  had  totally 
disappeared.  We  repeat,  then,  that  the  objection,  founded 
upon  the  supposition  that  no  laryngeal  observations  can  be 
made  except  when  the  singer's  protruding  tongue  is  held 
with  a  napkin,  is  completely  silenced  by  our  photographs, 
which  represent  the  tongue  as  lying  in  the  floor  of  the 
mouth. 

Again,  they  show,  what  is  known  to  all  who  are  in  the 
least  familiar  with  the  larynx,  that  there  always  exists  a 
large  space  between  the  two  pocket  ligaments  in  the  pro- 
duction of  tone,  and  that  the  vocal  ligaments  alone  meet. 
This  appearance  is  the  same  from  the  beginning  of  the 
tone  to  the  end,  and  clearly  disproves  the  ignorant  notion 
of  a  very  limited  but  loud-crying  faction,  that  the  pocket 
ligaments,  as  well  as  the  vocal  ligaments,  meet  in  phona- 
tion  ;  and  also  the  assertion  that  the  "  shock  of  the  glottis  " 
is  not  what  Garcia  declares  it  to  be,  and  as  we  have  de- 
scribed it  on  p.  162;  but  that  it  is  an  actual  explosion  of 
the  air  compressed  in  the  cavity  between  the  pocket  liga- 
ments   and   the    vocal    ligaments.     The  exposure  of  this 


LARYNGEAL  PHOTOGRAPHS.  177 

fallacy,  then,   is  the  second  lesson  taught  by  the  photo- 
graphs. 

And,  lastly,  the  photographs  show  the  difference  between 
the  upper  thick  and  the  falsetto  registers,  and  they  abso- 
lutely confirm  not  only  the  delineations  of  our  own 
engraved  images,  but  also  those  given  now  exactly  ten 
years  ago  by  Professor  Merkel,  of  Leipzig,  in  that  latest 
book  of  his  on  the  larynx  which  we  have  repeatedly 
referred  to  in  these  pages. 

Tenors  will  be  specially  interested  in  the  mechanism  of 
the  "falsetto."  The  shape  of  the  vocal  chink  clearly 
accounts  for  the  waste  of  air  and  for  the  want  of  power 
by  which  this  register  is  characterised,  but  we  desire  to 
repeat  here  that  the  "  falsetto "  and  the  "  lower  thin " 
are  produced  by  different  mechanisms — a  fact  which  is 
of  the  greatest  consequence  in  the  actual  process  of  voice 
training. 

It  now  only  remains  to  meet  one  more  objection  of  the 
enemies  of  the  laryngoscope,  viz.  that  a  person  may  make 
all  sorts  of  noises  with  the  mirror  at  the  back  of  his  throat, 
but  that  it  is  impossible  under  such  circumstances  to  pro- 
duce a  pure  vocal  tone.  To  this  we  simply  reply  that 
Mr.  Behnke  has  repeatedly  of  late  demonstrated  his  larynx 
to  musicians  of  eminence  for  the  express  purpose  of  settling 
this  point,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  all  who  have  been  thus 
appealed  to  that  no  fault  could  possibly  be  found  with  the 
quality  of  his  voice  while  under  laryngoscopic  observation. 
We  wish  to  add  that  we  have  found  people  whose  case 
was  exactly  the  same  from  the  very  first,  and  that  others 
acquire  the  same  facility  so  soon  as  they  become  accustomed 
to  the  touch  of  the  mirror. 


178 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH, 


A.  Lower  Thick. 


B.  Upper  Thick. 


C.  Lower  Thin. 


D.  Upper  Thin. 


E.  Small. 


LARYNGEAL  IMAGES  IN  THE  VARIOUS  REGISTERS. 

%*  The  first  three  (A.,  B.,  and  C.)  were  drawn  before  the  laryngeal  photographs 
were  taken,  and  well  represent  the  conventional  laryngoscopic  drawing.  D.  and  E., 
on  the  other  hand,  illustrate  the  perspective  view  of  the  larynx,  seen  in  the  photo- 
graphs, and  to  be  observed  in  all  laryngeal  images,  as  explained  in  the  text,  p.  173. 


T,  T.  Tongue. 

P,  P.  Pocket  ligaments. 

L.  Lid. 


S,  S.  Cartilages  of  Santorini. 

V,  V.  Vocal  ligaments. 

W,  W.  Cartilages  of  Wrisberg. 


PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  THE  LARYNX. 

L.  Lid  or  Epiglottis.  H,  H.  Hyoid  Fossoe. 

T,  T.  Tongue.  C.  C.  Pyramid  Cartilages. 

V,  V.  Vocal  Ligaments.  B,  B.  Interior  border  of  the  same 

P,  P.  Pocket  Ligaments.  seen  in  perspective. 

No.  11.  shows  the  larynx  and  position  of  the  vocal  ligaments  in  singing  the  note 


P^"^ 


in  the  upper  chest  or  upper  thick  register.     In  No.  I.  the  tone  pro- 


duced  was  higher   than   in   II.,    and  the   vocal  ligaments  are   consequently   more 
closely  approximated.     The  image  is  also  lower  in  the  mirror,  and  therefore  more  of 
the  base  of  the  tongue  is  seen, 
Nos.  III.  and  IV.  illustrate  the  position  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  and  the  appearance 

of  the  larynx  in  production  of  "falsetto"— the  note  sung  being  ^'ZZI 1 

The  reader  will  observe  the  great  alteration  in  the  shape  of  the  glottic  chink,  and 
the  generally  loose  condition  of  all  the  muscles. 


Flate  XXXV. 


No.  I. 


No.  III. 


r"'^''^^^ 


No.  II. 


No.  IV. 


PHOTOGRAPHS  OF   THE  LARYNX 

IN    THE     PRODUCTION    OF    DIFFERENT    MECHANISMS. 

(COPYRiaHT.) 

\^To  face  page  178. 


tiT 


(     179    ) 

^V*-^    0^  THE         >^ 

■U17I7BES.IT7] 

ON  VOICE  CULTIVATION. 

The  cultivation  of  the  voice  from  a  scientific  point  of  view, 
with  which  alone  we  are  here  concerned,  may  be  divided 
into  five  parts,  viz.,  (i)  Breathing,  (2)  Attack,  (3)  Reson- 
ance, (4)  Flexibility,  and  (5)  Registers. 

BREATHING. 

We  know  from  the  description  of  the  mechanism  of 
breaching  on  p.  49,  that  there  are  three  ways  of  carrying 
on  the  process  of  respiration,  namely,  midriff  breathing,  rib 
breathing,  and  collar-bone  breathing.  These  three  ways 
are  not  indeed  wholly  independent  of  each  other ;  they 
overlap,  or  partly  extend  into  each  other.  Nevertheless 
they  are  sufficiently  distinct,  and  it  is  a  general  and  con- 
venient practice  to  give  each  a  separate  name  according  to 
the  means  by  which  it  is  chiefly  called  into  existence. 

The  combined  forms  of  midriff  and  of  rib  breathing 
constitute  the  right  way,  and  collar-bone  breathing  is 
totally  wrong  and  vicious,  and  should  not,  in  a  state  of 
health,  be  made  use  of  under  any  circumstances.  Let  us, 
even  at  the  risk  of  being  accused  of  repetition,  once  more 
consider  this  matter  in  its  bearing  upon  the  production 
and  cultivation  of  the  voice. 

When  enlarging  our  chests  by  the  descent  of  the 
midriff^  and  by  sideways  extension  of  the  ribs,  we  inflate 
the  lungs  where  they  are  largest,  and  where  consequently 
we  can  get  the  largest  amount  of  air  into  them.      When 

X   2  ^ 


i8o  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

expanding  our  chests  by  raising  the  shoulders  and  collar- 
bones, &c.,  we  inflate  the  lungs  where  they  are  smallest, 
and  where,  consequently,  we  get  the  smallest  amount  of  air 
into  them.  It  will  be  observed  that  we  are  here  speaking 
of  collar-bone  breathing,  not  as  an  extension  of  the  two 
other  ways  of  breathing,  but  as  a  separate  act ;  and  there 
can  be  no  question  whatever  that  the  result  of  it  is  much 
smaller  than  that  obtained  by  the  combined  forms  of 
midriflf  and  of  rib  breathing.  This  may  easily  be  demon- 
strated by  means  of  the  spirometer,  an  instrument  which 
accurately  tests  the  breathing  power  of  man  by  indicating 
on  a  little  dial  the  exact  number  of  cubic  inches  of  air 
blown  into  it ;  and  experiments,  repeated  over  and  over 
again,  have  proved  our  case  most  clearly.  Here,  then, 
we  have  a  fact  which  cannot  be  disputed  away  by  any 
amount  of  argument,  and  which  is  quite  sufficient  in  itself 
to  turn  the  balance  against  collar-bone  breathing. 

But  so  far  as  the  voice  is  concerned,  there  is  a  still  more 
powerful  reason  why  midriff  and  rib  breathing  should 
always  be  made  use  of,  and  why  collar-bone  breathing 
should  never  be  resorted  to. 

The  lungs,  at  their  bases,  are  surrounded  by  soft  and 
yielding  parts.  We  can  contract  and  relax  the  midriff  to 
the  greatest  possible  extent,  and  for  any  length  of  time  ; 
this  will  never  fatigue  us  because  nature  has  not  here 
placed  any  obstacle  in  our  way.  Only  one  exception 
occurs,  that  is  the  occasional  interference  caused  by  too 
full  a  meal.  Most  people  know  from  experience  that  they 
cannot  breathe  so  well  after  a  good  dinner  as  they  could 
Before ;  and  most  public  singers  and  speakers  are  so  well 
aware  of  this  fact,  that  they  allow  a  considerable  interval 
to  elapse  between  food  and  voice  use,  while  others  even 
prefer    to    postpone    their    meals    until    after    they    have 


BREATHING.  i8i 


finished  their  work,  when  it  is  generally  found  that  the 
proper  use  of  their  bellows  has  resulted  in  giving  them 
a  fine  healthy  appetite.  They  have  certainly  this  ad- 
ditional reason  for  the  course  just  indicated,  that  the 
process  of  digesting  their  food  would  even  exercise  direct 
interference  with  their  voices;  but  that  is  a  point  with 
which  we  have  not  to  deal  in  this  chapter,  and  which  will 
be  discussed  in  its  proper  place. 

Again,  we  can  expand  and  contract  our  lower  ribs  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent,  and  for  any  length  of  time,  without 
incurring  any  fatigue,  because  here  also  nature  has  not 
placed  any  obstacle  in  our  way.  We  thus  see  that  the 
process  of  inflating  our  lungs  at  their  bases  is  so  perfectly 
easy,  as  not  to  require  the  slightest  effort,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  supplies  us  with  an  abundance  of  air. 

At  the  top  of  the  lungs  the  very  opposite  is  the  case. 
The  ribs  are  here  not  nearly  so  free  as  at  the  base,  and 
they  are  much  shorter.  They  are  attached  not  only  to 
the  spine  as  are  the  lower  ribs,  but  also  to  the  breast-bone 
in  front,  and  their  cartilages  or  elastic  portions  are,  equally 
with  the  ribs,  much  shorter.  They  are  also  greatly  impeded 
in  their  movement  by  the  shoulder-blades  and  collar-bones 
which  carry  the  arms,  and  all  this  weight  has  to  be  lifted  if 
inspiration  be  commenced  in  that  region. 

In  addition  the  chest  walls  are  forced  upwards  towards 
the  root  of  the  neck,  where  are  situated  the  food-passage, 
windpipe,  and  large  arterial  and  venous  vessels  carrying 
blood  to  and  from  the  brain.  It  is  most  important  that 
these  parts  should  be  left  free  as  they  are  placed  by  nature, 
but  collar-bone  breathing  necessarily  presses  against  them 
and  leads  to  fulness  and  congestion.  We  thus  see  that  to 
expand  and  contract  all  these  hard  and  unyielding  parts, 
involves    an    enormous    amount    of    labour,    which    must 


i82  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

necessarily  fatigue,  and  eventually,  have  an  evil  effect  upon 
the  voice,  while  at  the  same  time  the  resulting  amount  of 
air  inhaled  by  this  mode  of  breathing  is  but  very  small. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  we  have  so  far  spoken  of 
collar-bone  breathing  only^as  a  separate  act,  in  which  case 
the  respiration  is  laboured,  fatiguing,  gaspy,  and  insufficient. 
But  it  can  also  be  made  use  of  as  an  extension  of  midriff 
and  of  rib  breathing,  when  it  becomes  excessive  and 
choking.  It  may  be  mentioned  as  an  extreme  instance, 
that  "  Rubini  broke  his  collar-bone  in  a  violent  but  suc- 
cessful effort  to  deliver  B  flat  in  a  recitative  in  Pacini's 
'  Talismano.' "     (Walshe,  op.  cit.,  p.  15.) 

It  is  from  the  foregoing  easy  to  understand  that 
collar-bone  breathing,  whether  as  a  separate  act,  or  as 
an  extension  of  midriff  and  of  rib  breathing,  must  lead 
to  forcing  and  inequality  of  voice,  and  to  congestion  of  the 
vessels  and  tissues  of  the  throat ;  and  we  here  repeat  that, 
in  other  words,  it  is  at  the  root  of  most  of  the  troubles  to 
which  speakers  and  singers  are  exposed.  As  voices  are 
ruined,  and  as  disease  is  set  up  by  false  breathing,  so  also 
voices  may  be  restored  and  disease  may  be  cured  by  lung 
gymnastics  on  proper  principles,  and  we  have  quoted  else- 
where cases  of  this  kind  which  have  come  under  our  care 
which  are  so  many  living  proofs  of  our  assertion. 

In  order  to  explain  this  subject  more  clearly  in  this 
connection  of  voice  cultivation,  we  refer  the  reader  to 
the  accompanying  diagrams,  which  are  intended  to  show 
the  varying  capacity  of  the  chest  according  to  the  method 
in  which  the  lungs  are  inflated. 

Plates  XXXVI  A.  and  XXXVII  A.  show  the  chest 
after  full  expiration  ;  M,  D.  being  the  line  represent- 
ing the  midriff  or  diaphragm. 

Plates  XXXVI  B.  and  XXXVII  B.  show  the  figure  in 


BREATHING. 


183 


XXXVI  A. 


XXXVI  B. 
Male  Body. 


XXXVI  c. 


^.■;-:-..;3 


XXXVII  A. 


XXXVII  B. 

Female  Body. 


XXXVII  c. 


A,  A.  After  full  expiration.  C,  C.  Full  abdominal  breathing. 

B,  B.  Forced  collar-bone  Bteathing.  M,  D.  Midriff  or  diaphragm. 

DIAGRAMS  ILLUSTRATING  THE  VARYING  CAPACITY  OF  THE 
CHEST  ACCORDING  TO  THE  METHOD  IN  WHICH  THE  LUNGS 
ARE  INFLATED. 


{Adapted from  Lennox  Brmvne's  *  Medical  Hints  on  the  Singing  Voice.) 


1 84 


collar-bone  inspiration.  The  chest  is  bulged  out  and 
raised,  the  midriff  remains  as  high  as  after  expiration, 
and  the  abdomen  is  drawn  in.  These  two  diagrams 
illustrate  false  breathing. 

Plates  XXXVI  C.  and  XXXVII  C.  show  the  figure  in 
full  abdominal  inspiration.  The  chest  is  pushed  forward, 
but  not  raised;  the  midriff  is  pulled  down  and  the  ab- 
domen enlarged.  The  capacity  of  the  chest  is  here  clearly 
increased  at  the  expense  of  the  abdomen.  These  two 
diagrams  illustrate  correct  breathing. 

The  chief  lesson  which  the  above  diagrams  are  intended 
to  bring  home  to  the  reader  is  this :  The  criterion  of 
correct  inspiration  is  an  increase  of  size  of  the  abdomen 
and  of  the  lower  part  of  the  chest.  Whoever  draws  in  the 
abdomen  and  raises  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  breathes 
wrongly.  In  making  this  statement  we  do  not  forget  the 
difference  between  the  breathing  of  men  and  that  of 
women,  to  which  we  called  attention  on  p.  49.  The 
increase  in  size  of  the  abdomen  of  a  woman  is  certainly 
less  than  that  of  a  man,  but  there  is  an  increase  never- 
theless, or  rather  there  would  be  if  the  corset  did  not 
prevent  it.  "'^ 

This  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  artificial  hindrances 
to  proper  breathing.  We  have  said  that  the  lungs  at 
their  bases  are  surrounded  jDy  soft  and  yielding  parts 
which  can  be  worked  with  the  utmost  ease,  because  naru'-e. 
has  not  placed  any  obstacle  in  their  way;  but  unfortu- 
nately many  people  are  continually  doing  this  themselves. 

Men  and  boys  often  think  that  it  is  injurious  to  wear 
braces,  and  they  consequently  suspend  their  lower  gar- 
ments by  means  of  belts.  But  this  is  a  great  mistake;  for 
everything  interfering  with  the  freedom  of  the  waist  is  a 
serious    hindrance  to  respiration    and    should    be    strictly 


BREATHING.  185 


avoided.  Properly  constructed  braces  ought  to  be  worn, 
while  belts  fastened  to  anything  like  the  extent  necessary 
for  upholding  garments  must  be  pronounced  utterly 
objectionable. 

The  question  of  corsets  has  been  sufficiently  discussed  in 
the  chapter  on  Hygiene,  and  we  need  here  do  no  more 
than  remind  ladies  who  imagine  that  they  can  improve 
their  figures  by  imprisoning  themselves  in  close-fitting 
corsets  that  such  a  practice  exercises  an  injurious  influence 
u^von  respiration  varying  in  degree  not  only  in  accordance 
with  the  amount  of  constriction,  but  also  with  the  degree 
of  rigidity  of  construction.  The  spirometer,  which  is  the 
mr  St  trustworthy  and  impartial  referee  it  is  possible  to 
^i  d,  has  already  informed  us  that  stays  deprive  ladies  of 
'U  crly  one-third  of  their  breathing  power;  nor  does  this 
u  ^r  to  exceptionally  tightly-laced  stays,  but  to  such  as 
a     worn  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

It  may  be  further  observed,  however,  that  bands  or  strings 
are'  often  as  great  a  hindrance  to  proper  breathing  as  stays, 
and  that  no  experiment  is  of  any  value  in  which  im- 
pediments of  every  kind  ^xt  not  absolutely  removed. 

Our  readers  are  asked  to  again  refer  to  the  diagrams, 
PL  *  XVIII.  and  XIX.,  and  also  XX.  and  XXL,  pp.  iio- 
1 1  ,  jvhich  illustrate,  on  comparison  with  the  natural  figure, 
th^  deformity  in  the  chest  walls,  and  the  consequent  dis- 
placement of  the  contained  vital  organs  which  the  use  of 
stays  is  capable  of  inducing. 

The  air  is  the  motive  power  upon  which  the  voice 
depends;  without  air  no  tone  can  be  produced.  It  is 
therefore  of  the  utmost  importance  for  singers  and  speakers 
to  be  trained  to  breathe  properly.  We  must  know  how 
to  inflate  our  lungs  in  order  to  fill  them  abundantly  with- 
out overcrowding  them,  and  without  any  efforts   causing 


1 86  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


fatigue  and  injuring  the  voice ;  and  we  must  know  how  to 
regulate  the  exit  of  the  air  so  that  it  may  take  place  in  a 
steady,  even,  and  uninterrupted  stream,  enabling  us  even- 
tually to  hold  out  a  long  tone,  to  sing  a  long  passage,  or 
to  execute  a  fine  "  messa  di  vocel''  i.e.  the  gradual  swelling 
out  and  diminishing  of  a  sustained  tone. 

We  may  say  in  passing  that  we  hold  the  very  general 
practice  of  commencing  the  education  of  a  vocalist  by 
teaching  him  the  messa  di  voce  to  be  wrong.  This  orna- 
ment is  far  too  difficult  for  a  beginner,  and  the  earliest 
moment  for  attempting  it  is  when  the  student  has  fully 
mastered  his  respiration. 

The  singer's  and  speaker's  breathing  corresponds  to  the 
violin  player's  bowing  and  requires  as  much  practising. 

We  will  now  describe  some  exercises  which  will  increase 
the  student's  vital  capacity  and  give  him  complete  control 
over  his  breathing,  and  consequently  over  his  voice. 

The  first  experiments  with  regard  to  this  matter  should 
be  made  lying  flat  on  the  back,  because  then  the  raismg 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  and  of  the  collar-bones  is 
difficult;  so  that  in  this  position  nature  is  almost  surs  to 
have  her  own,  that  is  the  right,  way.  It  will  be  safer  still 
if  we  watch  our  breathing  in  bed,  as  we  shall  not  then  be 
hampered  by  corsets  or  tight- fitting  clothes  of  any  descrip- 
tion. If  we  now  place  the  hands  upon  the  abdomen  we 
shall  find  it  rising  very  considerably  as  we  commence  the 
process  of  inspiration.  Continuing  to  inhale  while  we  slip 
our  hands  a  little  higher  up,  the  ribs  will  be  noticed  to 
move,  thus  expanding  the  lower  part  of  the  chest.  The 
upper  part  of  the  chest  is  necessarily  also  enlarged  (see 
p.  41),  but  the  collar-bones  are  certainly  not  raised. 
In  expiration  the  ribs  recede  and  the  abdomen  sinks  in, 
until  inspiration  recommences.     This  is  the  way  in  which 


BREATHING,  187 


nature  carries  on  the  work  of  respiration,  and  we  invite  our 
readers  to  make  themselves  thoroughly  acquainted  with  it. 

This  will  put  them  in  a.  position  to  understand  the 
following  description  of  exercises  intended  to  improve  the 
power  of  breathing. 

Divest  yourself  of  any  article  of  clothing  which  at  all 
interferes  with  the  freedom  of  the  waist.  Lie  down  flat 
on  your  back.  Place  one  hand  lightly  on  the  abdomen 
and  the  other  upon  the  lower  ribs.  Inhale,  through  the 
nostrils,  slowly,  deeply,  and  evenly,  without  interruption 
or  jerking.  If  this  is  done  properly,  the  abdomen  will 
gradually,  and  without  any  trembling  movement^  increase 
in  size,  the  low^er  ribs  will  expand  sideways,  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  chest  will  be  pushed  forward,  while  the  collar- 
bones remain  undisturbed.  Now  hold  the  breath,  not  by 
shutting  the  glottis,  but  by  keeping  the  midriff  down  and 
the  chest  walls  extended,  and  count  four  mentally,  at  the 
rate  of  sixty  per  minute.  Then  let  the  breath  go  suddenly. 
The  result  of  this  will  be  a  flying  up  of  the  midriff,  and  a 
falling  down  of  the  ribs  ;  in  other  words,  there  will  be  a 
collapse  of  the  lower  part  of  the  body.  This  collapse  may 
not  at  first  be  very  distinct,  as  the  extension  has  probably 
been  insufficient ;  but  both  will  become  more  and  more 
perfect  as  the  result  of  continued  practice. 

Let  it  be  clearly  understood — the  mspiration  is  to  be 
slow  and  deep,  the  ^Jirpiration  sudden  and  complete.  In 
e;^spiration  the  abdomen  and  the  lov>^er  part  of  the  chest, 
expand,  and  in  ^jirpiration  they  collapse. 

The  time  of  holding  the  breath  is  not,  at  the  outset,  to 
exceed  four  seconds,  and  the  student  must  never,  on  any 
account,  fatigue  himself  with  these  exercises  ;  they  may, 
however,  be  frequently  repeated  at  intervals.  It  will  be 
found   by  occasional  trials  upon  the  spirometer  that  the 


i88  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

breathing  capacity  increases  with  these  exercises.  The 
process  of  abdominal  respiration  becomes  easy  and  no 
longer  requires  constant  watchfulness,  and  the  student  will 
now  be  able  to  abandon  the  lying  down  position,  and  to 
continue  his  practice  in  sitting,  and  finally  in  standing  and 
in  walking,  until  the  process  becomes  so  perfectly  natural 
to  him  that  it  would  really  require  an  effort  to  breathe  by 
raising  the  upper  part  of  the  chest. 

The  criterion  of  correct  inspiration  is,  as  before  stated,  an 
increase  of  size  of  the  abdomen  and  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
chest.  Whoever  draws  in  the  abdomen  and  raises  the  tipper 
part  of  the  chest  in  the  act  of  filling  his  lungs  breathes 
wrongly. 

Meanwhile,  in  continuing  the  breathing  exercises,  the 
time  of  holding  the  breath  may  be  increased  at  the  rate  of 
two  seconds  per  week ;  so  that  the  student  who,  during  the 
first  fortnight,  limited  himself  to  four  seconds  will,  at  the 
end  of  six  weeks,  hold  his  breath  during  twelve  seconds. 
In  some  instances  students  have  gone  as  far  as  twenty 
seconds ;  but  very  earnestly  must  the  reader  be  warned  to 
be  cautious,  and  not  to  go  to  extremes.  Nothing  will  be 
gained,  but  infinite  harm  may  be  done  by  over-doing  these 
lung  gymnastics,  and  persons  who  are  delicate  in  health 
should  not  undertake  the  exercises  at  all,  except  with  the 
sanction  of  their  medical  adviser,  who  will  limit  the  practice 
according  to  circumstances.  Nevertheless,  as  stated  else- 
where, singing  on  a  right  method  of  breathing  will  often 
really  strengthen  lungs  formerly  weak. 

It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  unflinching  regularity 
in  this  matter  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Exercise  in 
moderation,  regularly  and  conscientiously  repeated,  will 
increase  the  breathing  capacity,  improve  the  voice,  make 
speaking  and  singing  easy,  and  will  cure  the  tremolo.     It 


BREATHING.  189 


may  change,  and  has  changed,  the  falsetto  of  a  grown  man 
into  a  full  sonorous  man's  voice.  It  may  restore,  and  has 
restored,  a  lost  voice,  as  it  also  may  cure,  and  often  has 
cured,  clergyman's  sore  throat."^  It  will  certainly  turn  a 
greater  quantity  of  dark-blue  blood  into  bright-red  blood ; 
the  appetite  will  increase  ;  sounder  sleep  will  be  enjoyed, 
flesh  will  be  gained,  and  the  flabby,  pallid  skin  will  fill  out 
and  get  a  healthy,  rosy  colour.  All  this,  and  more,  may 
be,  and  often  has  been,  the  result  of  lung  gymnastics 
carried  on  in  moderation  and  with  perseverance.  It  is 
needless  to  add  that  a  man  will  no  more  improve  his 
breathing  by  fitful  and  exaggerated  exercises  than  he  could 
hope  to  become  a  proficient  upon  the  violin  by  practising 
once  or  twice  a  month  for  six  hours  at  a  stretch. 

The  second  breathing  exercise  is  the  exact  opposite 
of  the  first,  and  consists  in  taking  a  rapid  //aspiration 
and  making  the  orpiration  slow,  even,  uninterrupted, 
and  without  jerking  or  trembling.  Musical  readers 
will  at  once  see  the  importance  of  this  exercise  for  the 

*  That  there  may  be  no  mistake  concerning  this  statement,  it  should  be 
understood  that  the  word  "  cure  "  is  here  used,  not  in  the  sense  sometimes 
employed— namely,  that  symptoms  of  a  diseased  condition  have  been 
relieved — but  to  mean  that  instruction  in  right  voice  production  ensures 
against  relapse  into  the  diseased  state  originally  caused  by  wrong  voice 
production.  In  justice  to  my  co-author,  I  venture  to  quote  from  my  paper 
delivered  on  two  consecutive  days  to  several  hundred  members  of  the 
British  Medical  Association,  at  Liverpool,  last  August,  and  since  printed 
in  the  Association  Journal  :  "A  permanent  cure,  or  indeed  any  effectual 
relief,  can  only  be  brought  about  by  hygienic  and  elocutionary  treatment 
on  scientific  and  physiological  principles.  During  the  past  three  years  I 
have  been  much  more  successful  than  formerly  in  all  such  cases,  because  I 
have  insisted  on  the  absolute  necessity  of  a  course  under  my  friend  Mr. 
Behnke  after  the  diseased  condition  was  relieved,  and  I  desire  here  to  testify 
my  gratitude  to  him  for  the  greatly  increased  power  to  help  speech 
sufferers  that  I  have  enjoyed  since  I  have  been  able  to  avail  myself  of  his 
collaboration."— L.  B. 


I90  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

purpose  of  singing  sustained  tones  and  florid  passages ; 
but  it  would  be  quite  useless  to  attempt  it  before  No.  i 
has  been  sufficiently  practised. 

A  little  consideration  will  show  that  it  is  wrong  to  try  to 
control  the  exit  of  the  breath,  as  some  would  have  us  do, 
by  a  contraction  of  the  glottis,  because  the  comparatively 
tiny  muscles  of  the  larynx  are  too  weak  to  resist  with 
impunity  so  tremendous  a  strain ;  while  the  large  and 
powerful  muscles  of  the  chest  are  clearly  made  to  regulate 
expiration  as  well  as  inspiration.  It  is  absurd  on  the 
face  of  it  to  suppose  that  they  are  only  intended  for 
inflating  the  lungs,  while  the  exit  of  the  air  is  to  be 
governed  by  another  set  of  small  muscles,  situated  at  a 
great  distance,  and  having  their  full  share  of  work  in 
the  marvellou-s  and  ever-varied  combinations  which  are 
necessary  in  the  production  and  gradation  of  tone.  _ 

In  phonation  the  glottis  is  closed,  and  of  course  retards 
expiration  in  proportion  to  the  tightness  with  which  the 
pyramids  and  the  vocal  ligaments  are  held  together.  In 
this  sense,  therefore,  the  glottis  assists  in  regulating  the 
expiration,  but  this  function  is  only  secondary,  and  must 
not  be  relied  upon  for  controlling  the  air.  j5!rpiration 
exercises  must  consequently  be  practised  in  silence,  i.e. 
with  the  glottis  open.,  so  that  the  breathing  muscles  may 
be  exclusively  called  into  play. 

This  second  exercise  is  much  more  difficult  than  the 
first,  and  requires  the  greatest  watchfulness  and  attention  to 
conduct  it  properly.  But  even  with  the  greatest  care  the 
air  is  frequently  found  to  escape  much  more  quickly  than 
the  student  imagines,  and  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  ensure 
steadiness  of  ^^irpiration  by  merely  relying  upon  one's 
sensations.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  use  some  kind  of  a 
tell-tale,  such  for  instance  as  a  light  feather  or  a  burning 


BREATHING.  191 


candle.  The  flame  is  certainly  the  most  sensitive  indi- 
cator, and  the  student  who  has  learnt  to  exhale  through 
his  gently  opened  lips  close  to  a  light  without  to  any  great 
extent  blowing  the  flame  to  and  fro  may  take  it  that  he  is 
on  the  high  road  to  success. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  perform  this  experiment  with  the 
first  part  of  the  out-going  breath,  but  the  difficulty  com- 
mences as  soon  as  the  expiration  ceases  to  be  passive  and  T^ 
begins  to  be  active  (see  p.  48).  No  voice-user  has  therefore 
mastered  this  exercise  who  cannot,  without  causing  the 
flame  to  flicker,  expel  from  his  lungs  all  the  air  previously 
inhaled. 

Let  it  be  observed  that  the  above  exercise  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  well-known  practice  of  singing  before  a 
lighted  candle,  which  is,  comparatively  speaking,  an  easy 
matter. 

The  third  and  last  breathing  exercise  consists  in  taking 
the  zWspiration  as  in  No.  i,  and  the  ^;i:piration  as  in  No.  2. 

After  the  two  preceding  ones  have  been  fully  mastered 
this  last  is  readily  accomphshed  ;  and  the  student  who  has 
persevered  so  far  will  now  have  overcome  one  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  of  speakers  and  singers,  namely  the 
proper  management  of  the  breath,  an  accomplishment 
which  seems  to  become  more  and  more  rare  in  our  go- 
ahead  times  of  electricity,  in  which  every  one  appears  im- 
patient to  attain  the  end  without  using  the  tardy  means. 

It  may  be  added  that  in  lung  gymnastics,  as  well  as 
while  using  the  voice,  the  process  of  breathing  must  be 
carried  on  in  perfect  silence.  This  applies  more  particu- 
larly to  eWspiration,  which  is  frequently  accompanied  by 
more  or  less  noise*  Not  only  is  such  accompaniment, 
certain  dramatic  exigencies  apart,  ugly  in  the  extreme,  but 
it  also  shows  that  the  air-passage  is  obstructed  instead  of 


192  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

being  perfectly  open,  and  such  a  way  of  inflating  the 
lungs  is  therefore  on  all  grounds  strongly  to  be  condemned. 

A  great  deal  has  now  been  said  about  these  breathing 
exercises ;  nevertheless,  the  description  is  far  from  com- 
plete, and,  what  is  worse,  may  even  lead  to  misunderstand- 
ings, the  results  of  which  will  hereafter  be  laid  to  our 
charge.  For  writing,  however  lucid  and  careful,  can 
never  take  the  place  of  viva  voce  instruction ;  and  it  must 
be  distinctly  understood  that  the  explanations  here  given 
are  not  by  any  means  intended  to  supersede  the  aid  of  a 
competent  and  painstaking  teacher. 

Before  taking  leave  of  this  part  of  the  subject  it  is 
necessary  to  warn  the  reader  against  the  mistake,  which 
may  be  caused  by  a  superficial  perusal  of  these  pages,  that 
it  is  the  chief  aim  of  the  above  breathing  exercises  to 
enable  the  singer  or  speaker  to  cram  as  much  air  as 
possible  into  the  lungs.  It  is  true  that  some  of  the  evils 
which  are  likely  to  arise  from  exaggerated  breathing  efforts 
have  been  pointed  out ;  but  it  must  be  most  emphatically 
repeated  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  overcrowd  the  lungs 
with  air.  This  is  a  matter  of  every-day  occurrence, 
which  is  not,  however,  on  that  account  any  the  less  re- 
prehensible; for,  as  already  mentioned,  it  is  sure  to  lead, 
sooner  or  later,  to  forcing  and  inequality  of  voice,  and  to 
congestion  of  the  vessels  and  tissues  of  the  throat  and  of 
the  lungs. 

The  above  breathing  exercises  might  be  amplified  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  but  it  is  a  question  whether  any  service 
would  be  rendered  to  the  reader  by  multiplying  them. 
As  they  are  here  given  they  are  simple  and  easily  carried 
into  practice.  Students  may  therefore  be  induced  to  give 
them  a  trial,  which  will  soon  prove  their  great  value  ; 
whereas  over-elaboration  would   probably  rather   serve  to 


BREATHING.  193 


bewilder  and  to  discourage,  thus  defeating  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  devised. 

We  would  take  this  opportunity  of  warning  the  reader 
against  the  objectionable  practice  of  completely  exhausting 
the  supply  of  air  just  taken  in  before  commencing  another 
inspiration.  In  this  respect  speakers  are  much  greater 
sinners  than  are  singers,  and  we  know  of  many  who 
habitually  try  how  long  a  passage  they  can  get  through  in 
one  breath.  One  clergyman  of  our  acquaintance  even 
makes  it  a  boast  that  he  is  able  to  say  the  whole  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer  with  one  inflation  of  the  lungs.  Inde- 
pendently of  any  question  as  to  the  irreverence  of  such  a 
proceeding,  we  wish  to  urge  most  emphatically  that  all 
such  attempts  are  radically  wrong,  and  that  immense  mis- 
chief to  vocal  health  is  the  result  of  persistence  in  them. 

The  golden  rule  for  all  voice-users  is,  on  the  contrary, 
to  breathe  whenever  it  is  possible  conveniently  to  do  so, 
whether  a  new  supply  of  air  is  immediately  required  or  not. 
Nothing  so  much  enfeebles  the  voice  and  eventually 
leads  to  complete  exhaustion  as  phonation  with  the  fag 
end  of  the  breath ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  habit  of 
keeping  the  lungs  well  stocked  with  air  helps  to  make  the 
voice  strong  and  resonant,  and  enables  speakers  and  singers 
to  preserve  freshness  and  vigour  to  the  end  of  their  task. 

The  next  question  to  consider  is  whether  we  are  to 
breathe  through  the  mouth  or  through  the  nostrils. 
Mouth-breathing  is  a  pernicious  and  dangerous  practice 
which  frequently  leads  to  diseases  of  the  respiratory  and 
of  the  vocal  organs,  and  which  ought  to  be  discarded  as 
much  as  possible.  In  singing  as  well  as  in  speaking  it  is, 
unfortunately,  sometimes  unavoidable,  but  not  by  any 
means  so  often  as  is  generally  supposed.  The  fact  may  be 
new  to   many  people   that  it  is  not  necessary  to  shut  the 

o 


19*  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

mouth  in  order  to  inhale  through  the  nostrils ;  nor  even, 
as  advised  by  some  professors  of  elocution,  to  raise  the 
tongue  until  it  touches  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  The  air 
has  simply  to  be  drawn  through  the  nostrils.  This  causes 
the  soft  palate  to  fall,  thereby  uniting  the  nasal  passages 
with  the  throat,  which  is  all  that  is  necessary,  and  the 
process  is  easily  carried  out  in  practice. 

Many  teachers  of  singing,  for  the  reason  just  explained, 
object  to  breathing  through  the  nose  while  the  mouth  is 
open,  because,  they  say,  the  soft  palate  has  not  time  to 
recover  itself  and  to  resume  the  raised  position  necessary 
for  the  production  of  pure  vocal  tone.  This  objection  is, 
to  some  extent,  well  founded,  and  we  have  expressly 
guarded  against  the  assumption  that  a  singer  can  always 
breathe  through  the  nostrils.     We  distinctly  say  he  can  not,- 

But  the  objectors  to  nose  breathing  clearly  do  not  know 
that  the  soft  palate  of  a  singer  or  a  speaker  is  just  as  capable 
of  being  trained  as  the  fingers  of  an  instrumentalist.  An 
exercise  for  this  purpose  will  be  described  in  another 
section,  and  the  student  who  takes  the  trouble  to  practise 
it  regularly  will  obtain  marvellous  control  over  his  soft 
palate.  It  will,  certainly,  in  many  instances  enable  him  to 
inhale  through  his  nostrils  though  he  may  not  have  time 
to  shut  his  mouth,  and  without  in  the  least  interfering  with 
the  quahty  of  his  tone. 

In  any  case,  by  mouth-breathing,  unavoidable  as  it  may 
sometimes  be,  an  irritation  is  continually  set  up  ;  and  every 
possible  opportunity  of  counteracting  it  by  again  breathing 
through  the  nostrils  should  be  seized.  In  accordance  with 
this  consideration  breathing  exercises  ought  always  to  be 
carried  on  with  closed  lips,  and  it  is  very  much  to  be 
regretted  that,  in  some  otherwise  excellent  singing  manuals, 
the  opposite  practice  is  recommended. 


ATTACK.  ■     195 


ATTACK. 

Vocal  tone  is  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal 
ligaments;  and  we  have  seen  on  p.  160,  on  looking  down 
a  person's  throat,  that  the  chink  of  the  glottis  is  open  in 
breathing,  and  that  it  is  closed  by  the  approximation 
of  the  pyramids  and  of  the  vocal  ligaments  as  soon  as 
phonation  commences.  This  is  the  "  attack  of  tone." . 
We  have  also  learnt,  on  pp.  161  and  162,  that  this  attack 
may  be  accomplished  in  three  different  ways,  each  affect- 
ing the  tone  in  a  distinct  manner,  either  for  good  or  for 
evil.  " 

The  movements  of  the  pyramids,  with  the  vocal  liga.-, 
ments  attached  to  them,  upon  which  all  this  depends,  are 
governed  by  two  sets  of  muscles,  the  one  set  pulling  the 
ligaments  together,  and  the  other  pulling  them  apart. 
These  are  fully  described  on  p.  67,  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Closing  muscles  "  and  the  "  Opening  muscles  ;  "  and 
the  reader  who  has  carefully  given  his  attention  so  far  will 
at  once  see  the  importance  of  devising  a  set  of  exercises 
which  shall  call  these  opening  and  closing  muscles  into 
play,  thereby  making  them  powerful,  and  bringing  them 
under  the  control  of  the  will. 

This  is,  fortunately,  a  very  simple  matter ;  for  it  is  only 
necessary  to  sing  a  series  of  short  tones,  each  tone  to  be 
followed  by  a  short  inspiration.  It  has  been  shown  .that 
every  time  a  tone  is  struck,  the  vocal  ligaments  are  made 
to  approximate;  by  so  doing,  therefore,  the  closing 
muscles  are  exercised.  Every  time  an  inspiration  is  taken 
the  vocal  ligaments  are  separated ;  by  so  doing,  therefore, 
the  opening  muscles  are  exercised. 

o  2 


196  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

It  is  clear  from  the  above  explanations,  that  by  practis- 
ing in  the  manner  just  indicated,  these  muscles,  which  play 
so  important  a  part  in  the  production  of  the  voice,  will  be 
exercised  at  least  ten  times  as  much  as  would  be  the  case 
by  singing  sustained  tones  after  the  usual  method  of 
teaching.  They  are,  in  fact,  trained  just  as  by  suitable 
gymnastics  the  muscles  of  the  hands  and  fingers  are 
trained  for  the  purpose  of  performing  upon  the  piano  or 
the  violin. 

Here  is  a  description  of  the  exercise  :  Find  tlie  pitch  of 
your  speaking  voice,  which  we  will  say  is  F.  Then  sing 
the  following  : — 


e^d-^-J: 


OO  00 

oh  oh 

ah  ah 

ai  ai 

ee  ee 


oo 

oo 

oh 

oh 

ah 

ah 

ai 

ai 

ee 

ee 

Attack  the  tone  firmly  and  clearly,  avoiding  alike  the  check 
of  the  glottis  and  the  glide  of  the  glottis.  This  is  often  a 
matter  of  great  difficulty,  requiring  much  patience  and 
perseverance  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  on  that 
of  the  student.  The  glide  of  the  glottis  is  particularly 
hard  to  eradicate,  and  in  many  instances  the  case  seems  to 
be  hopeless.  Do  not,  however,  despair,  but  try  this :  Pro- 
nounce vigorously  the  word  "  Up."  Then  whisper^  but  still 
very  vigorously  and  distinctly,  three  times  the  vowel  n^  as 
you  just  had  it  in  the  w^ord  "  up."  Immediately  afterwards 
sing ''  Ah."     Thus— 

Up  !  u,  u,  u,  Ah  ! 

(spoken).  (whispered).  (sung). 

Another  point  of  importance  in  practising  the  exercise 
for  strengthening  the  ojjening  and  the  closing  muscles  is 


ATTACK. 


197 


the  breathing  after  every  tone  ;  and  this  must  be  done 
gently,  and  without  effort,  the  only  perception  of  it  to 
the  singer  being  a  slight  movement  of  the  midriff.  When 
the  exercise  can  be  sung  in  this  manner  on  F,  your 
supposed  speaking  tone,  then  go,  semitone  by  semitone, 
up  and  down  the  scale,  but  strictly  confining  yourself  to 
the  easiest  compass  of  your  voice. 

There  is  a  difficulty  connected  with  this  exercise  which 
may  lead  to  injurious  consequences  and  against  which 
the  reader  must  be  on  his  guard.  By  inhaling  with  each 
inspiration  more  air  than  is  consumed  in  producing  the 
corresponding  tones,  however  slight  the  excess  may  be,  the 
lungs  will,  after  a  little  while,  get  too  full  of  air,  until 
finally  a  sensation  of  being  choked  is  experienced.  This  is 
a  danger  which  invariably  arises  before  the  student  has 
learned  so  to  balance  his  inspiration  with  the  amount 
of  air  consumed  in  striking  the  tone  as  to  make  both 
absolutely  equal. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  it,  for  we  have  shown 
in  former  explanations  the  evil  results  arising  from  over- 
crowding the  lungs  with  air.  As  soon  as  the  student 
commences  to  feel  the  least  sensation  of  fulness,  he  must 
sing  a  few  tones  without  intermediate  inspirations  until  he 
has  sufficiently  reduced  his  stock  of  air ;  or,  better  still,  he 
must  leave  off  singing  and  empty  his  lungs  by  a  complete 
expiration,  and  then  commence  again  with  greater  watch- 
fulness than  before. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  correct  "  attack  "  of  a  tone 
corresponds  with  those  prompt  and  simultaneous  actions  of 
the  breath  and  of  the  vocal  ligaments  described  on  p.  162 
as  the  "  shock  of  the  glottis."  This  the  late  Orlando 
Steed  very  properly  calls  the  "  central  point "  of  Garcia's 
system  of  practice.     ( '  On  Beauty  of  Touch  and  Tone ' : 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


Proceedings     of    the    Musical     Association,     1879-80, 

P-  47-) 

But  what  shall  we  say  when  the  same  writer  goes  on  to 

observe  that  "  what  Garcia  calls  the  '  shock  of  the  glottis  ' 
is  really  a  shock  of  the  upper  glottis  (the  pocket  liga- 
ments) which  he  (Garcia)  thought  was  never  closed  "  ? 

And  again :  "  Energetic  vocalisation,  while  the  ventri- 
cles (the  pockets  of  the  larynx)  are  not  inflated,  must 
therefore  involve  either  the  forcing  of  the  vocal  cords  from 
their  right  position  for  singing  towards  that  which  they 
assume  in  a  state  of  rest,  thus  producing  a  bad  quality  of 
tone,  or  an  actual  injury  to  the  throat,  through  their  being 
subjected  to  a  greater  amount  of  tension  than  they  are 
intended  to  bear."     (Op.  cit.,  p.  52.) 

This,  of  course,  amounts  to  saying  that  the  distinguished 
inventor  of  the  laryngoscope  has  never  in  his  life  seen  a 
tone  properly  struck  in  the  larynx,  and  it  may  be  added 
that  all  laryngoscopists,  without  a  single  exception,  are 
exactly  in  the  same  position.  They  all  agree  in  giving  the 
same  description  of  the  process  of  striking  a  laryngeal 
tone;  but  if  we  are  to  believe  Mr.  Steed />^^  are  all  wrongs 
and  not  one  of  them  has  ever  correctly  observed,  or 
they  were  all  observing  the  production  of  tones  of  "  bad 
quality."  Thus  not  even  Garcia  himself,  the  trainer  of 
some  of  the  greatest  singers  of  modern  times,  is  capable 
of  distinguishing  a  good  tone  from  a  bad  one ! 

It  would  not  be  worth  while  seriously  to  consider  state- 
ments so  obviously  incorrect,  were  it  not  for  the  fact 
that  people  are  actually  trained  to  sing  with  this  "  shock  of 
the  upper  glottis ; "  that  is  to  say,  they  are  instructed  to 
attack  a  tone  by  approximation  of  the  pocket  ligaments,  by 
inflation  of  the  pockets  of  the  larynx  and  by  a  subsequent 
sudden  escape  of  the  imprisoned  air,  which,  according  to 


ATTACK.  199 


our  author,  causes  "  an  explosive  noise  similar  to  an 
unvoiced  consonant." 

We  have  described  on  p.  144  the  extraordinary  liberties 
which  it  is  necessary  to  take  with  exsected  larynges  in 
order  to  cause  the  pocket  ligaments  to  meet,  and  we  have 
no  hesitation  in  asserting  that  such  an  act  can  never,  in  a 
state  of  health,  take  place  in  phonation,  whatever  may  be 
the  case  in  pressing  and  swallowing,  &c.,  when  the  con- 
strictors of  the  vestibule  come  into  play.  Even  then 
there  can  be  no  inflation  of  the  pockets  of  the  voice-box, 
because  the  vocal  ligaments  are  inserted  in  the  pyramids 
much  closer  together  than  the  pocket  ligaments.  The 
lower  gate  will,  therefore,  under  any  circumstances  be 
shut  earlier  and  much  more  firmly  than  the  upper  one, 
thereby  effectually  preventing  an  accumulation  of  air 
between  the  two. 

But  the  mere  endeavour  to  bring  about  the  result 
desired  by  his  teacher  causes  the  student  to  make  wrong 
efforts,  which  must  sooner  or  later  have  evil  consequences. 
So  far  as  singing  on  such  a  plan  is  concerned,  it  may  be 
readily  imagined  that  each  tone  is  ushered  in  by  a  loud 
snapping  noise  which  is  exceedingly  ugly  and  at  times 
positively  ludicrous. 

The  above  theory  of  voice  production  is  avowedly 
founded  upon  '  Observations  on  the  Physiology  of  the 
Larynx,'  by  Dr.  John  Wyllie,  published  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Medical  Jour7ial^  September,  1866.  We  have 
read  this  very  interesting  paper  most  carefully,  and  it  is 
only  fair  to  Dr.  Wyllie  to  say  that  his  experiments  as  to 
the  approximation  of  the  pocket  ligaments  and  inflation  of 
the  pockets  were  made  in  relation  to  the  valvular  action  of 
the  larynx,  by  which  complete  closure  of  the  air-passage 
occurs — (i)  in  the  act  of  swallowing,  and  (2)  in  voluntary 


200 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


effort  as  in  holding  a  breath  for  certain  muscular  acts,  or 
in  involuntary  effort,  as  before  each  act  of  coughing. 


XXXVIII.  XXXIX. 

Section  of  the  Voice- box  or  Larynx.     {From  Merkel) 


I  &  2.  Vocal  ligaments. 
3  &  4.  Pocket  ligaments. 


5  &  6.  Pockets  of  the  larynx  (ventri- 
cles of  Morgagni). 
7  &  8.  Shield  cartilage. 

XXXVIII.  shows  the  shape  of  the  vocal  ligaments  in  the  formation  of  the  thick,  and 
XXXIX.  the  shape  of  the  vocal  ligaments  in  the  thin  register.  These  sections, 
while  they  clearly  illustrate  the  possibility  of  the  valvular  action  of  the  pocket 
ligaments,  also  show  most  plainly  that  there  remains  a  large  chink  between  them 
in  the  middle  line,  and  that  the  vocal  ligaments  alone  are  closely  approximated 
in  the  production  of  tone. 

Dr.  Wyllie  specially  confines  his  remarks  on  this  valvular 
action  to  these  two  conditions  of  deglutition  and  breath- 
holding,  to  the  exclusion  of  consideration  of  that  practical 
closure  of  the  vocal  ligaments  which  takes  place  during 
phonation.  When  he  does  consider  this  last  question  he 
in  no  instance  alludes  to  closure  of  the  pocket  ligaments 
as  essential  to  the  production  of  tone,  nor  even  as  an 
accidental  condition  of  it.  There  is  consequently  not  a 
vestige  of  foundation  for  the  theory  advocated  by  Mr. 
Steed  and  others,  and  we  hope  we  shall  hear  no  more  of 
the  "  shock  of  the  tipper  glottis."  * 

We  have  quoted  as  the  basis  of  our  refutation  the 
remarks  of  Mr.  Steed,  solely  because  he  is  the  only  one 
of  the  very  few  advocates  of  this  fantastic  doctrine  whose 
writings  are  sufficiently  intelligible  to  admit  of  criticism. 


See  letter  from  Dr.  Wyllie,  Appendix  II.,  page  307. 


(      201       ) 


RESONANCE. 

"  The  resonance  of  caves  and  of  rocky  enclosures  is  well 
known.  Bunsen  notices  the  thunder-like  sound  produced 
when  one  of  the  steam  jets  of  Iceland  breaks  out  near  the 
mouth  of  a  cavern.  Most  travellers  in  Switzerland  have 
noticed  the  deafening  sound  produced  by  the  fall  of  the 
Reuss  at  Devil's  Bridge.  The  noise  of  the  fall  is  raised  by 
resonance  to  the  intensity  of  thunder.  The  sound  heard 
when  a  hollow  shell  is  placed  close  to  the  ear  is  a  case  of 
resonance.  Children  think  they  hear  in  it  the  sound  of 
the  sea.  The  noise  is  really  due  to  the  reinforcement 
of  the  feeble  sounds  with  which  even  the  stillest  air  is 
pervaded,  and  also  in  part  to  the  noise  produced  by  the 
pressure  of  the  shell  against  the  ear  itself.  By  using  tubes 
of  different  lengths  the  variation  of  the  resonance  with  the 
length  of  the  tube  may  be  studied.  The  channel  of  the 
ear  itself  is  also  a  resonant  cavity.  When  a  poker  is  held 
by  two  strings,  and  when  the  fingers  of  the  hands  holding 
the  poker  are  thrust  into  the  ears,  on  striking  the  poker 
against  a  piece  of  wood,  a  sound  is  heard  as  deep  and 
sonorous  as  that  of  a  cathedral  bell."     (Tyndall,  op.  cit., 

p.   2IO.) 

The  above-quoted  instances  show  to  what  a  marvellous 
extent  sounds,  though  feeble  in  themselves,  may  be  re- 
inforced by  resonance.  But  experiments  more  clearly 
illustrating  this  matter  have  been  described  on  pp.  32  and 
^^,  and  the  student  is  advised  to  make  himself  thoroughly 


202 


familiar  with  them  as  they  are  of  the  greatest  consequence 
with  regard  to  the  present  part  of  our  subject.  The 
experiment  with  a  tuning-fork  and  an  ordinary  tumbler  is 
perhaps  the  most  instructive  one,  and  the  reader  should 
certainly  try  it  himself. 

The  lesson  it  teaches  is  that  the  amount  of  reinforcement 
depends  upon  the  shape  of  the  resonator,  which,  in  order 
to  produce  the  best  result,  must  be  exactly  tuned  to  the 
tone  of  the  tuning-fork.  Now  in  voice  production  the 
tuning-fork  is  represented  by  the  vocal  ligaments,  and  the 
resonator  by  the  cavities  above  the  glottis,  viz.  :  (i)  the 
pockets  of  the  larynx,  (2)  the  vestibule  of  the  larynx,  (3)  the 
upper  throat  (pharynx),  (4)  the  mouth,  and  (5)  the  nose. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  case  of  the  voice  is 
infinitely  more  complex  than  that  of  the  tuning-fork 
experiment,  because  in  the  former  the  resoaator  consists  of 
five  cavities,  and  in  the  latter  only  of  one.  The  means  of 
altering  the  resonance  cavities  of  the  voice  are  also  endless, 
while  that  of  the  glass  is  altered  by  the  one  simple  device 
of  partly  covering  its  aperture  with  a  piece  of  cardboard. 
But  in  tone  production  matters  are  made  still  more  com- 
plicated, to  a  degree  difficult  to  conceive,  by  the  ever- 
varying  pitch  of  the  primary  tones  of  the  voice  to  which 
the  resonance  cavities  have  to  be  continually  adjusted. 

Even  this,  however,  is  not  all ;  for  not  only  is  the 
primary  tone  reinforced  in  the  resonator,  but  the  quality 
of  the  voice  and  the  formation  of  the  different  vowels 
also  depend  upon  it.  It  is  thus  clear  that  it  is  highly 
necessary  to  be  fully  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the 
resonator,  and  to  acquire  the  greatest  possible  amount  of 
control  over  its  component  parts. 

A  full  description  of  the  pouches  and  of  the  vestibule 
of  the  larynx  with  the  lid  attached  to  it,  has  been  given  on 


RESONANCE.  203 


pp.  70  and  73,  and  their  appearance  in  the  laryngeal  mirror 
at  p.  157;  there  is  the  less  cause  to  refer  to  these  parts 
again,  as  we  have  Uttle,  if  any,  direct  control  over  them. 
The  case  is  different  with  the  throat,  the  mouth,  and  the 
nose.  The  dimensions  of  the  throat  chiefly  depend  upon 
the  position  of  the  larynx ;  for  when  the  voice-box  stands 
high  the  throat  is  short  and  narrow,  and  when  it  stands 
low  the  throat  is  long  and  wide.  The  former  condition 
favours  the  formation  of  brilliant  "  open  "  tones,  while  the 
latter  increases  power  and  fulness,  at  the  same  time 
favouring  the  formation  of  "  closed  "  tones.  Both  these 
qualities  have  their  uses,  and  singers  as  well  as  speakers 
should  be  able  to  employ  either  of  them  at  pleasure. 

With  regard  to  the  general  position  of  the  larynx  the 
most  contradictory  opinions  are  entertained  by  different 
teachers.  Some  say  that  it  should  be  kept  rigidly  fixed 
quite  low  in  the  throat.  This  is  a  mistaken  idea ;  for  it  is 
impossible  to  hold  the  voice-box  absolutely  in  the  same 
position.  But  even  continually  to  depress  the  larynx  as 
far  as  possible  is  an  unwise  proceeding,  involving  an 
unnatural  strain  upon  the  vocal  organ  which  must,  in  the 
long  run,  be  injurious  Kofler,  who  is  a  competent  judge, 
emphatically  confirms  our  opinion  in  these  words:  ''I 
have  had  opportunities,  during  the  past  four  years,  of 
examining  a  number  of  tenors  and  basses  who  had  been 
trained  by  teachers  who  force  them  to  keep  the  larynx  in 
a  firm  and  closely-confined  position.  Without  one  ex- 
ception their  tones  sound  unmusical,  dry,  and  harsh, 
lacking  all  sympathy,  no  matter  how  good  their  natural 
voice  might  be."     (Op.  cit.,  p.  23.) 

Other  teachers  maintain,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  larynx 
mast  have  free  play,  and  that  its  movements  must  not  on 
any  account  be  interfered  with.      The  result  is  that  the 


204  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

voice-boxes  of  their  pupils  fly  up  and  down  like  shuttle- 
cocks, which  not  only  looks  very  ridiculous,  but  certainly 
impoverishes  the  tone,  though  it  is  not  fraught  with  the 
injurious  effects  upon  the  voice,  arising  from  the  attempt 
to  keep  the  larynx  permanently  fixed  as  low  as  possible. 

The  proper  thing  is  to  avoid  both  extremes  and  to  give 
the  larynx  just  that  amount  of  fixity  which  enables  it  to 
ofier  the  necessary  resistance  to  the  pressure  of  the  air  from 
below,  thus  giving  the  muscles  governing  the  pitch  of  the 
voice  the  best  chance  of  acting  with  ease  and  certainty. 

The  student  will  do  well  to  test  before  a  looking-glass 
the  movements  of  the  larynx  described  on  p.  86  ;  and  to 
repeat  them  at  various  times  until  he  obtains  sufficient 
control  over  the  elevators  and  depressors  to  raise  and  to 
lower  the  larynx  independently  of  breathing,  of  opening 
and  shutting  the  mouth,  of  swallowing,  of  yawning,  and  of 
phonation,  &c.  This  is  excellent  practice,  and  will  be  of 
great  service  to  him  hereafter. 

The  mouth  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  cavity 
of  our  resonator,  and  the  shape  of  it  may  be  altered  by  the 
action  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  lips,  the  tongue,  and  the  soft 
palate. 

We  are  not  here  concerned  with  the  formation  of 
the  vowel  sounds.  "  A  vowel  is  a  modification,  due  to 
resonance  in  the  cavities  above  the  larynx,  of  an  original 
quality  of  tone  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal 
cords  in  the  larynx."  (EUis,  op.  cit.,  p.  lo.)  But  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  at  the  same  time,  that  "^  vowels  are 
quite  a  different  affection  of  sound  from  both  pitch  and 
quality.  Thus  we  say  a  man  has  a  clear  voice,  a  nasal 
voice,  a  thick  voice,  and  yet  his  vowels  are  quite  distinct 
from  each  other.  Even  a  parrot,  or  Mr.  Punch,  in 
speaking,  will  produce  as^  and  os,  and  es  which  are  quite 


RESONANCE.  205 


different  in  their  quality  from  human  vowels,  but  which 
are  nevertheless  distinctly  ds^  and  ds^  and  es''  (From 
a  paper  on  "  Vow^el  Sounds,"  by  Professor  Willis,  in 
'  Cambridge  Philosophical  Transactions.') 

We  have  here  merely  to  deal  with  the  alterations  of  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  resonator  in  so  far  as  they  influence 
the  volume  and  quality  of  the  voice  in  general,  and  with 
the  means  of  bringing  these  alterations  as  much  as  possible 
under  control. 

All  the  experiments  and  exercises  which  we  are  going 
to  suggest  are,  like  those  concerning  the  movements  of 
the  larynx,  to  be  made  before  a  mirror ;  and  for  our 
present  purpose  the  light  should  be  allowed  to  fall  into  the 
student's  mouth  in  such  a  manner  as  to  illuminate  even 
the  back  of  his  throat  while  standing  in  a  perfectly  natural 
position  and  without  in  the  least  stretching  the  neck, 
bending  the  head,  or  indulging  in  any  other  contortions. 
A  "  Queen's "  reading  lamp  upon  the  piano,  the  light 
exactly  on  a  level  with  the  mouth,  and  a  looking-glass 
attached  to  it,  or  the  Tobold  lamp,  recommended  for  auto- 
laryngoscopy,  will  be  found  a  very  convenient  arrange- 
ment. 

Such  a  contrivance  will  enable  the  student  to  watch  even 
his  slightest  movements,  and  those  of  the  jaw  and  of  the 
lips  being  so  very  familiar  to  every  one  it  would  almost 
seem  w^aste  of  time  to  say  anything  about  them.  We  find, 
however,  that  such  is  .not  the  case,  because,  strange  as  it 
may  seem,  the  majority  of  English  people,  whether  singers 
or  speakers,  will  not  open  their  mouths,  which  is,  of  course, 
the  first  and  most  obvious  thing  to  do  if  they  wish  the 
sounds  they  produce  to  be  heard  by  others.  The  result  is 
that  their  voices  are  smothered,  and  it  is  incredible  how 
incessantly  they  have  to   be  corrected  before  any  lasting 


2o6  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

improvement  takes  place.  In  addition  to  this  they 
articulate  in  a  most  negligent  and  careless  manner,  so  that 
their  utterance  is  anything  but  satisfactory,  as  teachers  of 
singing  and  of  elocution  know  by  unpleasant  experience. 

Mr.  H.  C.  Deacon,  in  a  scholarly  article  on  "Singing" 
in  Grove's  'Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians' 
(Macmillan  &  Co.),  expresses  himself  on  this  point  as 
follows :  "  No  nation  in  the  civilised  world  speaks  its 
language  so  abominably  as  the  English.  The  Scotch, 
Irish,  and  Welsh,  in  the  matter  of  articulation,  speak  much 
better  than  we  do.  Familiar  conversation  is  carried  on  in 
inarticulate  smudges  of  sound  which  are  allowed  to  pass 
current  for  somethings  as  worn-out  shillings  are  accepted 
as  representatives  of  twelve  pence.  Not  only  are  we,  as  a 
rule,  inarticulate,  but  our  tone-production  is  wretched,  and 
when  English  people  begin  to  study  singing  they  are 
astonished  to  find  that  they  have  never  learned  to  speak. 
In  singing  there  is  scarcely  a  letter  of  our  language  that 
has  not  its  special  defect  or  defects  amongst  nearly  all 
amateurs,  and,  sad  to  say,  amongst  some  artists.  An 
Italian  has  but  to  open  his  mouth,  and  if  he  have  a  voice 
its  passage  from  the  larynx  to  the  outer  air  is  prepared  by 
his  language.  We,  on  the  contrary,  have  to  study  hard 
before  we  can  arrive  at  the  Italian's  starting-point." 

This  judgment,  severe  though  it  be,  was  endorsed  by 
Dr.  W.  H.  Stone  in  the  course  of  his  recent  lectures  on 
"  Singing,  Speaking,  and  Stammering,"  at  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution, and  few  persons  competent  to  form  an  opinion 
upon  the  subject  will  be  inclined  to  differ  from  it. 

But  to  return  to  our  exercises.  The  student,  standing 
before  his  mirror  as  directed,  is  invited  to  try  the  following  : 

I.  Open  the  mouth  as  widely  as  possible  everyway; 
look  at  the  tongue,  the  soft  palate,  and  the  back  of  the 


RESONANCE.  207 


throat.     Then  shut  the  mouth  again.     Repeat  this  several 
times. 

2.  Open  the  mouth  widely  enough  to  put  two  fingers 
between  the  teeth ;  then  smile  so  as  to  draw  the  corners  of 
the  mouth  sideways  until  they  are  each  bordered  by  a  little 
perpendicular  line.  Now  suddenly  alter  the  shape  of  the 
mouth  by  protruding  the  lips  as  much  as  possible  with 
only  a  small  opening  between  them  as  in  whistling ;  the 
change  must  be  quick  and  smart.  Repeat  this  several 
times.  If  it  makes  you  laugh  so  much  the  better,  for 
that  will  put  you  in  a  good  temper,  which  may  be  useful 
to  you  in  going  through  a  few  apparently  still  more 
absurd  exercises. 

3.  Smile,  with  lips  firmly  closed,  drawing  the  corners  of 
the  mouth  as  much  sideways  as  possible ;  then  smartly 
protrude  the  lips  as  in  whistling  but  still  firmly  closed  with 
no  aperture  whatever.     Repeat  this  several  times. 

The  above  three  exercises  are  intended  as  gymnastics  for 
diff^erent  sets  of  muscles  which  in  ordinary  life  are  called 
into  play  only  to  a  very  limited  extent,  and  they  will  be 
found  useful  in  enabling  the  student,  so  far  as  lower  jaw 
and  lips  are  concerned,  promptly  to  alter  the  shape  of  the 
mouth  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  produc- 
tion of  good  tone,  and  they  are  also  a  great  help  to^  clear 
and  distinct  articulation.  These  gymnastics  are  of  little 
value  unless  they  are  performed  regularly  and  vigorously. 
Practise  them  for  a  little  while  three  or  four  times  a  day, 
but  never  fatigue  yourself  with  them. 

Now  we  come  to  that  big  movable  plug,  the  tongue, 
which  is  a  most  important  factor  in  altering  the  shape  of 
the  cavity  of  the  mouth.  The  tongue,  we  have  it  on  the 
highest  authority,  is  an  "  unruly  member."  It  is  often 
difiicult  to  keep  it  under  proper    control,  and  wc  know 


2o8  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

people  who  have  no  control  over  it  under  any  circum- 
stances ;  it  is  continually  running  away  with  them  alto- 
gether. As  in  every-day  life,  so  in  singing,  instead  of 
peacefully  assuming  the  position  necessary  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  various  vowels,  the  tongue  rises  in  rebellion, 
it  arches  up,  stiffens,  and  defies  all  attempts  to  keep  it  in 
order.  In  fact  the  more  one  endeavours  to  control  it 
the  more  it  resists  and  impedes  the  vocal  passage.  The 
stiffening  of  the  root  of  the  tongue,  accompanied  by  a 
rigidity  of  the  surrounding  parts,  becomes  very  great,  and 
the  tone  is  shut  in,  with  the  result  of  making  it  "  throaty." 

This  defect  is  frequently  so  obstinate  and  so  difficult  of 
cure  that  many  teachers  are  driven,  in  despair,  to  recom- 
mend the  use  of  mechanical  means,  such  as  holding  the 
tongue  down  with  a  spatulum,  or  with  the  handle  of  a 
spoon,  &c.  We  have  known  singers  to  be  trained  with  a 
little  silver  instrument  in  their  mouths  which  is  flat  at  the 
bottom  and  arched  up  at  the  top  like  the  hard  palate,  and 
which  has,  of  course,  a  large  opening  behind  and  another 
in  front.  This  contrivance  certainly  prevents  the  singer 
from  closing  his  mouth  too  much,  and  it  also  presses  down 
the  tongue.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  most  ingenious  instru- 
ment of  the  kind  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  and 
far  in  advance  of  either  spatulum  or  spoon-handle. 

But  its  use  is  nevertheless  to  be  deprecated,  because — 

1.  It  limits  vocalisation  to  those  vowels  which  can  be 
produced  with  a  flat-lying  tongue. 

2.  It  rather  increases  than  diminishes  that  baneful  stiffen- 
ing of  the  root  of  the  tongue  which  does  so  much  mischief. 

3.  It  makes  the  singer  rely  upon  artificial  help  instead 
of  endeavouring  to  use  his  tongue  rightly  and  naturally, 
and  it  thus  really  retards  the  cure  of  the  evil  which  it  seeks 
to  remedy. 


RESONANCE.  209 


The  wisest  plan  to  pursue  is  to  let  the  tongue  execute  a 
series  of  gymnastics  which  will  soon  reduce  it  to  obedience 
and  bring  it  under  control ;  the  gain  will  be  great  and 
permanent.  Stand  before  your  looking-glass  and  make 
the  following  experiments  : — 

1 .  Open  the  mouth  widely.  Put  out  the  tongue  straight, 
and  as  far  as  possible.  Draw  it  back  smartly  and  try  to 
let  it  lie  flat  and  low,  but  touching  the  lower  teeth  all 
round.  Repeat  several  times.  In  this  as  well  as  in  the 
remaining  tongue  exercises,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  the  lips  and  the  lower  jaw  perfectly  still. 

2.  Put  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  lower  front 
teeth,  and  then  push  it  out  as  far  as  possible ;  this  will,  of 
course,  completely  roll  it  up.  Then  draw  it  back  smartly 
as  in  exercise  No.  i.     Repeat  several  times. 

3.  Keep  the  ro^t  of  the  tongue  as  flat  as  you  can,  raise 
the  tip  and  push  it  perpendicularly  and  quite  slowly 
towards  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  Then  lower  it  again  as 
gradually,  until  it  has  once  more  assumed  its  original 
position.     Repeat  several  times. 

4.  Raise  the  tip  of  the  tongue  as  in  exercise  No.  3, 
and  move  it  gradually  from  one  side  to  the  other  so  that 
the  highest  point  of  it  describes  a  semi-circle.  Repeat 
several  times. 

Take  care  not  to  overdo  these  exercises  or  they  will  be 
very  fatiguing,  but  practise  them  regularly  every  day  until 
you  have  quite  mastered  the  tongue.  It  is,  in  many 
instances,  at  first  found  almost  impossible  to  carry  out  the 
movements  just  indicated,  and  the  tongue  will  perform  the 
most  curious  contortions.  But  we  can  assure  the  reader^ 
from  extended  observations,  that  with  perseverance  the 
tongue  has  to  give  in  at  last,  and  the  result  is  worth  trying 
for  with  all  diligence,  because  it  will  not  only  greatly  assist 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


in  the  cure  of  throaty  tone,  but  it  will  also  be  of  the 
utmost  value  in  helping  the  student  to  alter  the  size  of  the 
cavity  of  the  mouth  in  endeavouring  to  adjust  it  to  the 
varying  pitch  of  the  laryngeal  tone,  thus  finding  the  best 
resonance  for  it. 

iVnother  device  in  curing  throaty  tone  consists  in 
singing  sustained  tones  to  oo-oh-ah.  The  oo  is  our  most 
"  forward  "  vowel,  then  follows  oh  and  then  ah.  If,  there- 
fore, we  sing  oo.,  and  then  let  it  gradually  dwindle  into  oh., 
without  allowing  it  to  slip  back,  we  fix  the  oh  in  the  same 
place  in  which  we  first  had  the  oo.  Now  let  us  imper- 
ceptibly change  the  oh  into  ah.,  still  taking  care  not  to 
allow  the  latter  vowel  to  slip  back,  and  we  shall  ^y.  the  ah 
where  we  just  had  the  oh  ;  that  is  to  say,  right  in  front  of 
the  mouth.  This  is  a  very  useful  exercise  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  the  quality  of  tone  and  of  increasing  the 
"  reach  "  of  the  voice.  But  it  is  insufficient  where  throati- 
ness  arises  from  stiflTening  of  the  root  of  the  tongue 
and  the  surrounding  parts,  and  in  such  cases  the  oo-oh-ah 
exercises  should  be  preceded  by  rapidly  singing  the  syllable 
koo. 

The  00^  as  we  have  just  seen,  is  our  most  forward  vowel, 
and  in  pronouncing  the  k  the  tongue  is  brought  into  almost 
the  identical  position  which  is  necessary  for  oo.,  though  it 
comes  firmly  in  contact  with  the  soft  palate.  It  requires 
some  dexterity  to  see  this,  but  if  we  manage  the  light  well 
we  eventually  succeed,  and  we  then  perceive  that  the  back 
of  the  tongue  completely  hides  the  arches  of  the  soft 
palate  and  the  uvula.  In  other  words,  in  quickly  and 
repeatedly  uttering  a  syllable  commencing  with  k,  the 
tongue  rapidly  moves  up  and  down,  and  the  larynx  being 
attached  to  the  tongue-bone  is  compelled  to  execute 
similar  movements — a  fact  which  will  be  at  once  revealed 


RESONANCE.  211 


by  the  mirror.  By  this  exercise,  therefore,  we  absolutely 
prevent  any  stiffening  of  the  root  of  the  tongue  and  of  the 
neighbouring  parts,  and  it  will  be  found  invaluable  in 
getting  rid  of  that  particular  kind  of  throatiness  arising 
from  the  above  cause.  For  reasons  just  enumerated  it  is 
easier,  as  well  as  more  beneficial,  to  combine  the  k  with  00 
than  with  any  other  vowel,  and  this  is  confirmed  by 
making  a  few  trials.  A  complete  formula  of  the  exercise 
would  therefore  be  as  follows : — 


Met.  60.  

^  4      J'^^^^j    I     J J    I     J^=^ 


Koo  koo  koo  koo  koo    00    oh    ah 

Sing  this  several  times  steadily  and  in  strict  time,  breathing 
before  00  and  at  the  end  of  the  exercise.  Commence  on 
your  ordinary  speaking  tone,  and  then  go  higher  and 
lower,  semitone  by  semitone ;  but  keep  well  within  the 
easiest  compass  of  your  voice. 

We  have  so  far  dealt  with  the  lips,  the  jaw,  and  the 
tongue  as  some  of  the  means  of  altering  the  size  and  the 
shape  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth.  We  must  now,  finally, 
notice  the  movements  of  the  soft  palate,  the  construction 
of  which  has  been  described  on  p.  80.  We  can  raise  or 
lower  it  to  such  an  extent  as  completely  to  shut  off  from 
the  throat  either  the  nose  or  the  mouth.  If  we  raise  the 
soft  palate,  thereby  shutting  the  nose  off  from  the  throat, 
then  the  tone  passes  through  the  mouth,  and  assuming 
that  its  exit  takes  place  in  a  normal  manner,  it  will  be  a 
pure  vocal  tone.  If  we  lower  the  soft  palate,  thereby 
shutting  the  mouth  off  from  the  throat,  then  the  tone 
passes  through  the  nose,  which  gives  it  a  nasal  quality. 

This  is  denied  by  some  authors,  who  teach  that  nasal 
.  .  p  2 


212  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

quality  is  caused,  on  the  contrary,  by  the  tone  not  being 
able  to  pass  through  the  nose  ;  and  it  is  amazing  to  see 
the  voluminous  arguments  with  which  they  endeavour  to 
prove  their  case,  since  the  matter  can  be  settled  by  a  very 
simple  experiment.  Take  a  little  hand-mirror,  hold  it 
flat  against  your  upper  lip  with  the  glass  upwards,  and 
sing  a  pure  vocal  tone ;  the  glass  will  remain  perfectly 
bright  and  undimmed.  Now  sing  a  nasal  tone,  and  the 
glass  will  immediately  be  covered  with  moisture,  which 
conclusively  shows  that  the  tone  passed  through  the 
nostrils.  That  nasal  tone  implies  passage  of  the  tone 
through  the  nostrils,  and  is  not  due  to  obstruction  of  them 
may  be  proved  in  another  way.  Hold  the  mirror  as 
described  and  pronounce  the  consonants  b,  c,  d,/^  &c.,  and 
the  mirror  will  remain  clear,  but  on  pronouncing  m  or  n, 
which  are  essentially  and  admittedly  nasal  consonants,  the 
mirror  is  at  once  dimmed. 

But  the  tone  could  not  pass  through  the  nostrils  if  the 
soft  palate  were  not  lowered,  which  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  shut  the  nostrils  and  yet  to 
sing  without  any  nasal  twang  whatever.  This  matter  is 
further  illustrated  by  the  two  photographs  of  the  mouth, 
facing  p.  215,  showing  the  position  of  the  soft  palate  in 

the   production  of  ^    '        with   a   pure  quality,  and  the 

position  of  the  soft  palate  in  the  production  of  the  same 
tone  with  a  nasal  quality.  These  photographs  speak  for 
themselves  and  do  not  require  any  further  comment. 

Another  proof  of  nasal  quality  being  caused  by  the  tone 
passing  through  the  nose  is  found  in  the  circumstance 
that  persons  partly  or  entirely  without  a  soft  palate  can, 
under  no  circurtistances,  produce  pure  vocal  tone,  though 
with  entire  absence  of  the  soft  palate  the  nasal  twang  is 


RESONANCE,  213 


less  marked  than  with  partial  absence  of  it.  This  is 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  in  the  former  case  the 
mouth,  the  upper  pharynx,  and  the  nose  are  practically 
converted  into  one  great  cavity. 

The  question  may  be  asked  how  it  is  that  by  singing 
through  the  nose  with  the  lips  closed  the  tone  has  no  nasal 
quality.  The  reply  is  that  such  a  way  of  producing  tone 
is  humming  and  not  singing.  It  is  quite  possible,  however, 
even  to  hum  with  a  strong  nasal  twang,  but  an  explanation 
of  this  matter  is  not  called  for  in  the  present  volume. 

Again,  it  may  be  objected  that  if  the  nasal  passages  are 
obstructed,  as,  for  instance,  by  the  swelling  of  the  mucous 
membrane  during  a  cold,  the  voice  immediately  partakes 
of  a  more  or  less  nasal  quality.  This  is  perfectly  true,  but 
in  that  case  the  soft  palate  is  sure  also  to  be  affected  so  as 
to  be  unable  by  proper  contraction  to  prevent  the  tone 
from  entering  the  nose.  When  such  is  the  case,  and  the 
tone  is  afterwards  arrested  or  impeded  in  its  passage 
through  the  nose,  then  the  tone  will  be  even  more  nasal 
than  it  would  have  been  otherwise ;  it  is  also,  however, 
much  less  resonant. 

We  repeat  that  there  can  be  no  nasal  twang  while  the 
singer  or  speaker  has  the  power  sufficiently  to  raise  the 
soft  palate  in  order  to  prevent  the  tone  from  entering 
the  nostrils. 

But  there  is  another  side  to  this  question  which  often 
leads  to  misunderstandings.  However  tight  the  closure  of 
the  soft  palate  may  be  it  is  never  sufficient  to  prevent  the 
air  in  the  nasal  cavities  being  thrown  into  co-vibrations 
with  that  in  the  mouth.  These  co-vibrations  are,  in  fact, 
necessary  for  a  certain  amount  of  the  brilliancy  of  the 
voice,  and  if  they  are  prevented  by  a  stoppage  of  the 
posterior  openings  of  the    nasal  passages,  the  voice   will 


214  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

sound  dull  and  muffled.  This,  of  course,  is  due  to  an 
absence  of  nasal  resonance^  and  must  on  no  account  be 
described  as  nasal  tzvang.  It  is,  indeed,  the  very  opposite 
of  it. 

The  action  of  the  soft  palate  in  two  extreme  cases  has 
now  been  described,  and  the  difference  in  the  respective 
positions  is  so  clearly  defined  that  it  is  easily  recognised. 
But  the  movements  of  the  soft  palate  are,,  under  other 
circumstances,  far  more  compHcated,  because  it  not  only 
occupies  different  positions  for  different  pitches,  but  the 
closure  assumes  different  degrees  of  tightness  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  different  vowel  sounds. 

The  soft  palate  rises  with  the  ascending  scale,  the  arch 
between  the  pillars  of  the  fauces  becomes  narrower  and 
higher,  and  the  uvula  diminishes  in  size,  until  at  last  it  not 
only  quite  vanishes  but  a  dimple  appears  in  place  of  it. 
This  is  illustrated  by  the  photographs  of  the  throat  which 
show  the  soft  palate  in  the  production  of  three  different 

tones    ^=^     r      '    --.     The  reader  will  now  see  the  im- 


portance of  exercising  the  soft  palate,  and  we  recommend 
for  this  purpose  the  following  practice : 

Stand  in  front  of  your  mirror  as  before,  open  the  mouth 
widely,  and  see  that  the  back  of  your  throat  is  well 
illuminated. 

(i)  Breathe  through  the  mouth  ;  the  soft  palate  will  be 
moderately  raised,  with  the  uvula  in  its  normal  shape  and 
position.  In  expiration  through  the  mouth  the  uvula 
will  be  thrown  a  little  forward. 

(2)  Open  the  mouth  again  and  inhale  through  the 
nostrils.  This  will  cause  the  soft  palate  to  fall,  and  the 
tongue  to  rise,  which  has  the  effect  of  shutting  the  mouth 
at  the  back  just  as  you  shut  it  in  front  by  closing  the  lips. 


Plate  XL. 


No.  II. 


No.  III. 


f      ' 


No.  I. 


No.  IV. 


.#  /^  lie. 


PHOTOGRAPHS     OF     THE     SOFT     PALATE 

IN    THE     PRODUCTION     OF    VARIOUS    TONES 

(Coi'VRiOH  r.) 

[To /ace  page  215. 


RESONANCE.  215 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PHOTOGRAPHS,    ILLUSTRATING  THE  SOFT 
PALATE  IN  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  VARIOUS  TONES. 

I,  2.  Anterior  pillars  of  the  fauces. 

3,  4.  Posterior  pillars  of  the  fauces. 

5.  Uvula. 

No.  I.  shows  the  soft  palate  in  the  production  of  the  note  F,  as  indicated  in  the 
picture.  The  reader's  attention  is  called  to  the  arch  of  the  palate,  3,  5,  4,  and  he  is 
requested  to  contrast  it  with  the  much  greater  height  of  that  in 

No.  IL,  representing  the  same  throat  during  production  of  the  note  A. 

No.  II  r.  illustrates  another  change,  and  still  greater  elevation  of  the  arch  when 
singing  C.  The  uvula  in  this  case  is  seen  to  have  almost  completely  disappeared. 
As  a  further  contrast,  No.  IV.  represents  the  soft  palate  in  production  of  the  same  C 
as  in  No  III.,  but  with  strong  nasal  quality.  The  whole  palate  and  uvula  are  seen 
to  have  dropped  on  to  the  tongue  :  the  space  between  the  curtain  of  the  palate  and 
the  back  of  the  throat  for  the  passage  of  the  tone  through  the  nostrils,  is  indicated  by 
the  very  strong  line  of  shadow  which,  as  will  be  observed  in  the  other  pictures,  had 
been  gradually  lessening  in  production  of  pure  tone  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
note. 


2i6  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

Exhale  in  the  same  way,  and  the  mouth  will  remain  shut 
at  the  back.     Repeat  several  times. 

(3)  Inhale  through  the  nostrils,  with  the  mouth  wide 
open.  Prevent  the  tongue  from  rising,  keep  it  still  and 
flat.  You  have  learnt  to  control  your  tongue  and  will 
have  no  difficulty  on  that  score.  This  will  compel  the 
soft  palate  to  come  down  more  smartly,  which  is  just  what 
is  wanted.  Now  exhale  through  the  mouth,  when  the  soft 
palate  will  rise  again. 

By  thus  mhaling  through  the  nostrils  with  the  mouth 
open,  and  the  tongue  still  and  flat,  the  soft  palate  is  pulled 
vigorously  down,  and  by  ^^haling  through  the  mouth  the 
soft  palate  is  raised  again.  If  therefore  these  two  actions 
are  repeated  for  a  little  while,  the  soft  palate  is  continually 
moved  up  and  down,  which  must  necessarily  have  the 
effect  of  strengthening  the  muscles  of  which  it  largely 
consists. 

This  is  a  great  gain  from  a  mechanical  point  of  view, 
because  it  will  enable  the  soft  palate  to  do  its  work  much 
more  satisfactorily  than  before,  and  prevent  it  from  be- 
coming fatigued  by  long  talking  or  singing.  But  it  will 
also  make  its  limp,  flabby  substance  tense  and  hard,  which 
is,  it  will  readily  be  granted,  of  the  highest  importance 
from  an  acoustical  point  of  view.  The  effect  of  the 
change  upon  the  voice  is  very  marked,  and  we  strongly 
recommend  the  reader  to  conscientiously  practise  these 
soft  palate  gymnastics  every  day,  for  he  is  sure  to  reap  the 
benefit  of  his  perseverance. 

It  is  clear  from  the  above  that  a  perfectly  healthy  state 
of  the  soft  palate  is  of  the  highest  importance.  If  it  is 
weighted  with  an  elongated  uvula  or  with  enlarged  tonsils 
it  cannot  act  in  a  proper  manner,  and  singers  or  speakers 
with  such  impedimenta  are  handicapped  for  vocal  purposes. 


RESONANCE.  217 


They  might  just  as  well  try  to  run  a  race  with  heavy 
weights  on  their  shoulders  as  to  sing  or  to  speak  with  such 
appendages  to  their  soft  palates. 

We  now  come  to  the  vowel  sounds.  This  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly complicated  subject  which,  together  with  a 
scientific  consideration  of  the  consonants,  has  been  most 
exhaustively  treated  by  Mr.  Alexander  Ellis  in  his 
^  Pronunciation  for  Singers,'  to  which  we  have  already 
so  frequently  alluded.  No  man  is  better  qualified  for 
this  task  than  Mr.  Ellis,  who  has  devoted  half  a  life- 
time to  the  study  of  speech  sounds,  and  whose  capacity 
for  patient  and  painstaking  research  is  unbounded.  It 
would  therefore  be  presumption  on  our  part  to  attempt 
to  explain  here  in  a  cursory  manner  what  he  has  done  so 
thoroughly. 

We  prefer  to  confine  ourselves  to  a  few  points  absolutely 
essential  for  our  purpose,  and  we  strongly  advise  the  reader 
carefully  to  study  Mr.  ElHs's  book  and,  above  all  things, 
faithfully  to  carry  out  all  the  experiments  which  he  suggests. 
We  ourselves  are  deeply  indebted  to  Mr.  Ellis  for  much 
valuable  information,  and  we  feel  sure  that  our  readers  will 
have  the  same  experience. 

We  know  that,  whatever  vowel  we  may  pronounce,  the 
laryngeal  tone  is,  pitch  and  loudness  apart,  exactly  the 
same  in  all  cases,  and  that  it  takes  the  form  of  one  vowel 
or  another  solely  according  to  the  shape  of  the  resonator, 
which  may  be  described  as  a  mould  into  which  the  tone  is 
cast.  This  can  easily  be  demonstrated  by  a  simple  and 
instructive  experiment.  Strike  an  ordinary  C  tuning-fork, 
put  your  mouth  in  position  for  the  vowel  oo^  and  hold  the 
fork  in  front  of  your  mouth.  Although  you  utter  no 
sound  whatever,  the  tuning-fork  will  distinctly  say  00, 
Now  rapidly  change  the  position  of  your  mouth  for  ok 


2i8  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


and  then  for  ah,  again  in  perfect  silence,  when  the  tuning- 
fork  will  distinctly  say  ok  and  ah.  The  ah,  it  is  true,  will 
not  be  sounded  very  loudly,  because  the  cavity  of  the 
mouth  necessary  for  the  production  of  that  vowel  only 
reinforces  some  of  the  upper  partials  which,  in  the  case  of 
tuning-forks,  are  exceedingly  faint.  Even  in  the  produc- 
tion of  00  and  of  oh  much  better  results  may  be  obtained 
by  substituting  for  the  C  tuning-fork  other  forks  which 
give  tones  exactly  corresponding  with  the  pitch  of  the 
resonator ;  but  the  experiment  is  sufficient  to  show  the 
importance  of  properly  shaping  the  mouth  in  uttering  the 
various  vowel  sounds.  For  an  illustration  of  this  matter  we 
refer  the  reader  to  the  diagrams  on  p.  14  in  Mr.  Ellis's  book. 

This  brings  us  to  the  fact,  already  hinted  at  in  several 
places,  that  the  various  vowel  sounds,  if  whispered,  have 
each  a  definite  pitch.  If  we  put  a  tall  jug  under  a  tap, 
and  let  the  water  fall  into  it,  we  can  tell  by  the  sound 
when  the  jug  is  getting  full.  When  the  jug  is  empty  it 
constitutes  a  long  pipe,  producing  a  low  tone ;  as  the 
water  gradually  fills  the  jug  it  shortens  the  pipe,  and  the 
tone  is  raised  in  proportion,  until  at  last  it  becomes  quite 
shrill.  A  similar  alteration  takes  place  in  the  resonator  for 
the  production  of  the  various  vowel  sounds.  Thus  for  00 
the  voice-box  stands  lowest,  and  it  rises  more  and  more  for 
oh,  ah,  ai,  and  ee. 

The  consequence  is  that  when  a  tone  is  produced,  not 
by  singing,  but  by  whispering — that  is  to  say,  merely 
causing  the  air  in  the  resonator  to  vibrate — it  will  be  found 
that  the  resonator  is  tuned  lowest  for  00  and  highest  for 
ee,  the  succession  being,  as  before,  00,  oh,  ah,  ai,  and  ee. 

The  most  curious  part  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the 
pitch  of  the  cavity  for  each  vowel  is  exactly  the  same, 
whether  in  the  case  of  a  man,  a  woman,  or  a  child,  the 


RESONANCE.  219 


only  condition  being  that  the  vowel  be  exactly  of  the  same 
quality  in  every  instance.  It  is,  no  doubt,  the  difficulty, 
or  we  should  perhaps  say,  the  impossibility,  of  getting 
exactly  the  same  quality  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
different  observers,  as,  for  instance.  Bonders,  Helmholtz, 
Koenig,  and  others,  do  not  quite  agree  as  to  the  pitches 
which  they  assign  to  the  various  whispered  vowels. 

Now  it  is  obvious,  as  we  know  from  e very-day  ex- 
perience, that  we  are  not,  by  these  pitches  of  the  resonating 
cavities,  prevented  from  uttering  the  vowels  upon  every 
tone  of  our  voices ;  but  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  there 
are  certain  tones  which  are  more  favourable  for  the  pro- 
duction of  each  vowel  than  others,  and  it  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  general  rule  that  00  and  oh  are  most  easily  sung 
upon  the  lowest,  and  ai  and  ee  upon  the  highest,  part  of 
our  voices,  while  ah  lends  itself  most  readily  to  be  used 
over  the  whole  compass. 

There  is  consequently  good  reason  why  the  ah  should 
be  selected  by  teachers  of  singing  as  the  most  favourable 
vowel  for  the  cultivation  of  the  voice.  But  considering 
that  in  singing  words  the  vowels  have  to  be  rendered  as 
they  come,  and  to  the  best  advantage,  it  is  clearly  a 
mistake  to  vocalise  exclusively  on  ah,  and  the  wise  teacher 
will  see  that  other  vowels  receive  a  proper  share  of  atten- 
tion as  well.  We  have  known  persons  who  could  sing  a 
fine  ah,  but  whose  oh  and  ai  were  wretched,  to  say  nothing 
of  00  and  ee. 

A  truly  laughable,  though  probably  very  exceptional,, 
case  of  cultivating  one  vowel  at  the  expense  of  all  others 
occurred  a  few  years  ago  in  a  large  Scotch  town,  and  may 
be  related  here  for  the  benefit  of  the  reader.  The  con- 
ductor of  a  choral  society  being  impressed  with  the  fact 
that   00   is    the    most   "  forward "   vowel,  and  that  much 


220  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

depends  upon  bringing  the  voice  well  to  the  front  of  the 
mouth,  conceived  the  idea  of  drilling  his  pupils  for  some 
considerable  time  exclusively  on  oo,  with  the  result  that  at 
their  next  appearance  in  public,  it  was  almost  impossible 
for  them  to  sing  any  other  vowel.  Some  of  our  leading 
singers  were  engaged  for  the  soli,  and  they  found  it 
difficult  not  to  join  in  the  merriment  of  the  public,  which 
was  caused  by  the  extraordinary  pronunciation  of  the 
words  of  the  choruses,  choir  and  conductor  being  quite 
unconscious  of  anything  singular  taking  place.  The 
climax  was  reached  when,  in  the  Hallelujah  Chorus,  the 
choir  sang  vigorously  Hoolooloojoo,  Hoolooloojoo,  and  it 
may  be  imagined  that  the  effect  was  intensely  comical. 

If  we  want  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  resonance  for 
our  vowels,  we  must  modify  them  to  suit  the  various 
pitches  at  which  we  have  to  sing  them.  Mr.  Ellis  has  a 
number  of  admirable  exercises  upon  this  subject.  Their 
practical  results  are  roughly  as  follows : — 

1.  Oo  2j=,  in  pool  is  a  favourable  vowel  for  the  lower  part 
of  the  voice ;  the  quality  of  tone  deteriorates  as  we  ascend 
the  scale,  and  the  oo  must  now  be  sung  as  in  pull  pro- 
longed, when  the  quality  will  at  once  improve  materially. 

2.  Oh  as  in  those  is  not  so  favourable  a  vowel  for  singing 
as  in  on  prolonged,  which  yields  a  good  tone  at  nearly  all 
pitches,  but  the  best  results  are  obtained  from  the  oh  as  in 
door. 

3.  Ah  produces  a  good  tone  at  nearly  every  point  of 
the  scale,  although  the  quality  of  the  vowel  slightly  alters. 

4.  Ai  as  in  pain  has  a  harsh  effect  at  all  parts  of  the 
compass  of  the  voice,  and  is  greatly  improved  by  singing  it 
as  mpen  prolonged. 

5.  Ee  as  in  peep  is  a  favourable  vowel  in  the  higher  part 
of  the  voice,  but  singing  down  the  scale  it  becomes  more 


THE  ''REACH''  OF  THE  VOICE.  221 

and  more  clouded,  until  at  last  it  assumes  a  character  of 
gruiFness.  If,  however,  from  the  middle  of  our  compass 
downwards  we  sing  the  ee  as  in  pip  prolonged,  the  quality 
of  tone  will  be  most  materially  improved. 

We  have  in  the  above  hints  only  noticed  the  five  elemen- 
tary vowels,  and  for  any  additional  sounds,  as  well  as  for  a 
complete  explanation  of  the  whole  subject,  we  once  more 
refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  Ellis's  '  Pronunciation  for  Singers,' 
which,  we  repeat,  cannot  be  recommended  too  highly. 

The  "  reach  "  or  "  telUngness  "  of  a  voice,  as  Dr.  Walshe 
calls  it,  does  not  so  much  depend  upon  the  power  of  blast 
as  upon — 

1.  The  attack  of  the  tone  ; 

2.  The  absence  of  superfluous  breath  ; 

3.  The  forward  production  of  the  tone;  and, 

4.  Resonance. 

We  have  all  heard  and  admired  the  ringing  pianissimo 
tones  of  our  great  singers,  which  so  completely  fill  even  the 
largest  buildings  that  they  are  not  only  distinctly  heard, 
but  almost  felt,  while  the  voice  of  a  mere  shouter,  how- 
ever loudly  he  may  sing,  does  not  penetrate  to  any 
distance.  A  singer  who  can  produce  a  fine  piano  tone  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  increasing  its  power,  but  he  who 
relies  upon  mere  force  will  never  be  able  to  sing  a  true 
pianissimo.  He  may  certainly  sing  less  loudly,  but  he  will 
also  in  the  same  proportion  become  more  inaudible. 

The  student  is  recommended  to  give  his  attention  to  the 
following  points  : — 

a.  Strike  the  tone  firmly  and  clearly  in  accordance  with 
the  explanations  in  the  section  on  "  Attack." 

b.  Use  no  more  breath  than  is  actually  necessary,  or  the 
tone  will  be  diluted,  as  milk  is  diluted  by  the  addition  of 
water. 


222  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

c.  Let  the  tone  come  well  forward  in  the  mouth,  and 
try  to  keep  it  there.  If  you  have  a  feeling  as  though  it 
went  away  from  you,  and  you  had  to  run  after  it  to  catch 
it,  it  will  never  be  a  "  telling  "  tone. 

d.  Sing  softly  but  vigorously.,  and  above  all  things  sing 
beautifully ;  or  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Deacon,  "  Work 
for  quality,  and  power  will  take  care  of  itself."  (Op.  cit., 
p.  504.) 

Dr.  Stone  says,  in  the  syllabus  of  his  Royal  Institution 
lectures,  "  the  voice  excels  all  instruments  in  the  power  of 
combining  sounds  with  significant  words "  With  this  we 
thoroughly  agree ;  but  what  if  the  "  significant  words  "  are 
pronounced  in  so  slovenly  a  way  as  to  be  quite  unin- 
telligible ?  We  all  know  that  singers  whose  articulation  is 
so  clear  that  every  word  they  utter  is  perfectly  understood 
are  scarce,  while  those  who  leave  us  in  doubt  as  to  whether 
they  sing  English,  or  Italian,  or  any  other  language  are 
plentiful,  and  the  number  of  those  who  mispronounce 
their  words  in  a  deplorable  manner  is  legion. 

It  might  therefore  be  expected  that  we  should,  in  this 
chapter,  say  something  about  articulation.  We  can, 
within  the  limits  of  this  manual,  only  call  attention  to  it  in 
a  general  way;  and  the  best  advice  we  can  offer  to  singers 
as  well  as  to  speakers,  is  that  they  should  make  a  daily 
practice  of  reading  aloud  some  of  the  tables  on  p.  no  of 
Mr.  Ellis's  '  Pronunciation,'  and  that  they  should  also 
carefully  work  through  those  on  pp.  128  to  143.  The 
reader  is  led  by  easy  stages  from  simple  words,  as  eel.,  ill ; 
eat,  it ;  peat,  pit,  &c.,  to  such  as  incomprehensibility  and 
inter communicability.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  the 
tables  are  systematically  arranged,  and  that  nothing  is 
omitted. 


(      223      ) 


FLEXIBILITY. 

The  flexibility  of  the  voice  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
the  control  we  have  over  the  muscles  governing  the 
pitch ;  that  is  to  say,  upon  the  readiness  and  exactness 
with  which  we  are  able  to  allow  them  to  contract  or  to 
relax. 

Performers  upon  various  instruments  know  that  certain 
exercises  are  indispensable  to  brilliant  execution,  because 
they  strengthen  the  muscles  of  the  wrist  and  of  the  fingers, 
and  make  them  obedient  to  the  will.  It  has  even  been 
found  that  simple  finger  gymnastics,  exercising  separately 
diflferent  sets  of  muscles,  and  making  them  independent  of 
each  other,  are  of  the  greatest  value,  and  save  long  hours 
of  tedious  and  wearisome  practising.  In  a  similar  manner 
we  may  spare  ourselves  much  trouble,  and  gain  our  end 
most  readily,  by  vocal  gymnastics,  calculated  to  bring  into 
play  the  stretching  and  slackening  muscles  of  the  larynx. 
There  is  no  difficulty  about  it.  Sing  F,  the  same  tone  on 
which  we  started  when  exercising  the  opening  and  the 
closing  muscles,  and  after  it  G.  The  alteration  of  the 
pitch  is  brought  about  by  a  contraction  of  the  stretching 
muscles  overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  opposing  slacken- 
ing muscles,  thereby  tensing  the  vocal  ligaments.  If  you 
again  sing  F,  the  case  is  reversed,  and  the  new  alteration  in 
pitch  is  brought  about  by  a  contraction  of  the  slackening 
muscles  overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  opposing  stretch- 
ing muscles,  thereby  relaxing  the  vocal  ligaments. 


224 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


■  0,      9^ — , 


JZt 


00 

oh 
ah 
ai 
ee 


oo 
oh 
ah 
ai 
ee 


The  above  is  an  example.  Take  care  to  render  it  perfectly. 
Sing  every  tone  clearly  and  distinctly,  but  without  jerking, 
at  the  same  time  uniting  all  the  tones,  but  without 
drawling.  The  tones  should  be  like  a  row  of  pearls  upon 
a  string,  each  one  well  defined  and  separate,  yet  all  strung 
together,  and  forming  an  uninterrupted  whole.  Sing 
softly  and  with  pure  intonation.  Hold  the  jaw,  the  lips, 
and  the  tongue  absolutely  still.  Remember  that  the  pitch 
is  altered  in  the  larynx  and  not  in  the  mouth.  Do  not  try 
how  quickly  you  can  sing,  btct  rather  how  distinctly.  Com- 
mence slowly  and  be  in  no  hurry  to  increase  the  speed. 
Raise  and  lower  the  exercise  semitone  by  semitone  within  the 
medium  part  of  your  voice.  A  variety  of  exercises  founded 
upon  the  same  principles  may  be  introduced,  and  will 
serve  to  increase  the  flexibility  of  the  voice  in  a  short  time. 
There  is  nothing  new  in  this,  and  it  may  be  thought 
superfluous  to  point  out  a  physiological  basis  for  vocal 
gymnastics  so  universally  recommended  as  these.  But 
personal  experience  has  taught  us  that  students  of  singing 
are  very  apt  to  look  upon  flexibility  of  the  voice  as  a 
natural  gift,  and  that  they  are,  in  many  instances,  reluctant 
to  submit  to  a  discipline  which  every  instrumentalist 
undergoes  without  questioning  and  as  a  matter  of  course. 
It  is  true  that  some  voices  are  naturally  more  flexible  than 
others,  but  it  is  also  true  that  all  can  acquire  nimbleness 
and  agility  if  they  proceed  in  a  systematic  manner  and 
with  the  necessary  perseverance. 


THE  REGISTERS. 


There  is,  in  fact,  no  department  of  vocal  training  in 
which  results  may  be  obtained  with  greater  certainty,  if 
students  would  only  zvork ;  but  this,  unfortunately,  many 
of  them  will  not  do,  and  the  result  is  that  even  public 
performances  are  frequently  disgraced  by  a  clumsiness  of 
execution  which  would  make  it  impossible  for  an  instru- 
mentalist to  get  a  hearing,  and  which  is  tolerated  in  the 
case  of  singers,  only  because  she  or  he  has  a  fine  voice. 


THE  REGISTERS. 

We  have  defined  a  register  as  "  a  series  of  tones  produced 
by  the  same  mechanism."  The  five  registers  of  which  the 
human  voice,  taken  as  a  whole,  consists  are  carefully 
described,  and  the  means  by  which  they  are  formed 
minutely  explained  on  pp.  163  to  170.  These  registers, 
nevertheless,  continue  to  be  a  stumbling-stone  to  many, 
and  the  fact  of  the  existence  in  the  throat  of  different 
actions  for  the  production  of  different  series  of  tones 
has  led  some  teachers  into  the  deplorable  mistake  of 
developing  and  exaggerating  them,  instead  of,  on  the 
contrary,  smoothing  them  over  and  equahsing  them. 
The  result  is,  that  we  often  hear  singers  who  seem  to 
have  two  or  three  different  voices.  They  growl  in  the 
one,  moan  in  the  second,  and  shriek  in  the  third;  while 
it  should  have  been  their  aim  so  to  blend  and  to  unite 
the  registers  as  to  make  it  difficult  even  for  a  practised 
ear  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other.  Such  singing 
is  outrageous,  and  we  protest  against  the  opinion,  expressed 
in  some  quarters,  that  it  is  the  natural  outcome  of  the 
teachings  of  the  laryngoscope. 

We  will  review  the  whole  subject,  putting  it  into  a  new 

a 


226  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

light,   and  hope  to  succeed  in  removing   doubts   and  in 
destroying  errors. 

Let  us  imagine  we  are  listening  to  a  bass,  commencing 


with  his  lowest  tones,  and  singing  up  to  @ — I- — '  .    In  so 


doing  he  is  playing,  we  will  say,  upon  the  double  bass. 
This  is  the  '•  lower  thick  register."  A  tenor  joining  in 
as  soon  as  the  bass  has  gone  high  enough  for  him  to 
do  so,  would  produce  his  tones  in  exactly  the  same 
,  way — that  is  to  say,  he  also  would  be  playing  upon  a 
double  bass.     Both  our  singers  now  sing  up  the  scale  from 


^'     r=—  ,  the  bass  to  the  end    of  his  compass,  and  the 


tenor  to  /  y     \        .     In  so  doing,  they  have  both  changed 

instruments ;  they  do  not  play  these  tones  upon  a  double 
bass^  but  upon  a  violoncello.  This  is  the  "  upper  thick 
register."  Many  of  the  tones  that  have  just  been  sung  by  a 
bass  and  by  a  tenor  can  also  be  produced  by  female  voices. 


the  compass  of  a  contralto  going  down  to,  say  ^ — ^ — '  . 

Her  lowest  tones  she  sings,  like  the  bass  and  the  tenor,  in 
the  *^  lower  thick  ; "  that  is  to  say,  like  the  men,  she  plays 
upon  the  double  bass ;  the  only  difference,  so  far,  between 
her  voice  and  that  of  the  male  singer's  being  this,  that  the 
contralto  continues  a  third  higher  in  the  "  lower  thick " 
than  the  bass  and  the  tenor ;  or,  referring  to  the  instru- 
ments, the  men  exchange  the  double  bass  for  the  violon- 
cello  at  ^' — I '■  ,    and    the   woman    makes    the   change 


at  ffiE^E 


THE  REGISTERS.  227 


At   this    point    a    soprano    joins    in,    and   going    from 

Jy 1 —   to  /k      J       she  sings  Hke  bass,  tenor,   and  con- 


tralto in  the  "  upper  thick,"  or,  to  keep  up  our  com- 
parison, she  plays  upon  the  violoncello.  Observe  the 
important  fact  that  the  series  of  tones  last  mentioned,  from 


^ 1 —  to  /Tv      J — ■  ,  is  played  by  bass,  tenor,  contralto, 

and  soprano  upon  the  same  instrument,  the  violoncello ; 
that  is  to  say,  they  all  sing  in  the  same  register^  the 
" upper  thick''  Here  we  must  part  company  with  our 
bass  (who  has  probably  not  sung  the  last  tone  or  two), 
while  tenor,  contralto,  and  soprano  continue  to  sing  up 
the  scale,  the  tenor  as  high  as  he   can,  and  contralto  and 


soprano  to  /k     P —  .     In  so  doing  they  have  all  three 


exchanged  the  violoncello  for  the  viola^  or,  in  other  words, 


they  have  been  singing  from  /u     J     •  to  /k     P     •  in  the 

"  lower  thin." 

Contralto  and  soprano  from  this  point  continue  by 
themselves,  laying  aside  the  viola,  and  playing  upon  the 
violin,  singing,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  "  upper  thin."  The 
tenor,  it  is  true,  could  perform  in  the  same  way,  and  so  be 
still  with  them ;  even  the  bass  might  make  use  of  the  same 
means,  and  has  to  do  so  when  taking  the  part  of  a  male 
alto.  But  we  will  not  needlessly  complicate  matters,  and 
prefer  to  confine  ourselves  to  the  voices  as  generally 
employed  in  modern  music.  Let  us,  therefore,  listen  to 
contralto   and  soprano,  as  they  play  upon  their  violin  up 

the  scale  to  7k     i .     Here  we  must  also  take  leave  of 

G    2 


228  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


our  contralto,  and  the  soprano  finishes  alone  ;  but  to  do 
so  she  requires  again  other  means,  and  as  we  have  exhausted 
the  family  of  stringed  instruments,  we  have  no  choice,  if 
we  wish  to  carry  our  illustration  to  the  end,  but  to  give 
her  a  toy  fiddle  which,  with  lighter  strings,  might  certainly, 
without  injury,  be  screwed  up  to  a  much  higher  pitch  than 
an  ordinary  violin.     Upon   this  toy  fiddle  she  plays  up  to 

=:    or    even    to    ■  \)      '  ,  which    constitutes    the 


/|(     ' or    even    to    -zit 


highest  register  of  the  human  voice,  namely,  the  "  small 
register." 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  for  a  moment 
intended  to  suggest  by  these  comparisons  that  the  human 
voice  has  any  resemblance  to  string  instruments — a  matter 
which  has  already  been  fully  discussed  on  p.  88. 

In  order  to  correctly  understand  the  above  explanation 
of  the  registers,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the 
tones  spoken  of  are  represented  by  notes  expressive 
of  their  actual  pitchy  while  tenor  music  is,  in  the  treble  clef, 
generally  written  an  octave  higher  than  it  is  sung.  Thus 
the  high  F  of  the  tenor,  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
see  on  the  fifth  line,  is  here  put  in  the  first  space,  &c. 

The  registers  are  found  as  here  described  in  the  vast 
majority  of  voices,  though  there  are^  of  course,  exceptions 
to  the  rule.  But  although  most  teachers  have  had  more 
or  less  painful  experience  of  the  registers,  there  are  some 
who  either  deny  their  existence  altogether,  or  who  admit 
only  two,  namely,  "  Chest  and  Falsetto."  With  these  it  is 
impossible  to  argue.  "We  can  take  a  horse  to  the  water, 
but  we  cannot  make  him  drink,"  and  we  can  give  a  man 
the  opportunity  of  listening  to  the  registers  in  a  voice, 
but  we  cannot  make  him  hear  them.     There  are  also  those 


THE  REGISTERS.  229 


who  have  committed  themselves  pubhcly  to  theories  which 
do  not  agree  with  the  facts  now  put  before  them.  And, 
finally,  there  are  those  who  are  open  to  conviction  if  only 
the  opportunity  be  offered  to  them  to  form  a  correct 
opinion. 

These  we  would  advise  to  listen  carefully  and  patiently 
to  raw  and  untutored  voices,  because  in  such  the  registers 
will  be  noticeable  in  all  their  primitive  distinctness  and  in  all 
their  glaring  contrasts,  while  in  cultivated  voices  the  teacher, 
if  he  understands  his  business,  has  already  strengthened 
some  parts  and  softened  down  others,  so  that  it  is  often 
difficult  to  detect  the  differences.  It  must  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  registers  are  not  in  all  voices  equally 
plain  ;  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  listen  to  many  before  a 
satisfactory  conclusion  can  be  arrived  at.  We  have,  in  the 
case  of  young  contralto  singers,  often  had  the  opportunity 
of  hearing  all  the  Jive  registers  in  one  voice,  and  we  also 
have  frequently  succeeded  in  making  them  clear  to  sceptics. 
There  is  nothing  like  personal  experience,  and  we  counsel 
our  readers  to  try  for  themselves.  We  are  certain  that 
those  who  have  now  studied  the  question  theoretically,  and 
who  afterwards  in  a  candid  and  unprejudiced  frame  of 
mind,  put  the  matter  to  a  test,  will  agree  with  us  that  there 
is  overwhelming  evidence  in  support  of  the  statements  put 
before  them. 

The  difference  between  some  of  the  registers  is  very 
noticeable  in  tenors.  There  are  few  people,  Httle  though 
they  may  otherwise  know  about  the  human  voice,  who 
have  never  heard  of  a  tenor's  "  Chest "  or  "  Falsetto " 
voice  ;  and  teachers,  while  they  know  that  he  has  another 
register  besides,  are  also  aware  of  the  difficulty,  in  many 
instances,  of  uniting  the  two  just  mentioned.  It  is  indeed 
a  feat  never  attempted  by  some,  who  have  an  idea  that  the 


230  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

"  Lower  Thin "  (to  be  called  "  Falsetto "  only  when 
wrongly  produced)  is  of  no  use  whatever.  They  do  not 
consider  that  it  was  in  this  "  Lower  Thin  "  they  themselves 
could  shout  so  lustily  while  they  were  children  ;  that  it  is 
now  weak  partly  through  disuse,  and  that  it  may  be  again 
cultivated  to  a  wonderful  degree  of  power.  They  are 
unaware  also  that  the  lowest  tones  of  this  "  Lower  Thin  " 
supply  the  material  for  the  "  voce  mista  "  or  "  mixed 
voice,"  and  that  by  judiciously  blending  the  "  Upper 
Thick,"  the  "  Mixed,"  and  the  "  Lower  Thin,"  a  voice  may 
be  formed,  at  once  sweet  and  full  of  power,  yet  easily 
produced  and  lasting. 

They  prefer,  alas,  to  force  the  "  Upper  Thick  "  far  above 
its  natural  limits,  and  the  result  is  that  their  pupils  can 
never  produce  a  high  tone  except  by  a  shout,  and  that  but 
few  voices  for  any  length  of  time  survive  such  barbarous 
treatment. 

"There  seems  reason  to  believe  that  in  the  attempt  to 
acquire  notes  unnatural  to  the  individual,  the  natural  por- 
tion of  the  voice  undergoes  impairment  in  timbre^  if  not 

in  power .  On  plain  physiological  grounds  all 

attempts  at  forcing  up  a  voice  (and  from  the  dearth  of 
tenors  and  the  abundant  supply  of  baritones,  the  practice 
is  likely  to  become  more  and  more  common)  must  be 
mjurious  to  the  vocal  organs.  The  effort,  in  truth,  im- 
plies a  forced  change  in  the  span  of  vocal  cord  habitually 
employed ;  a  modification  of  natural  muscular  action ; 
and  a  change  in  the  amount  of  vocalising  play,  upward 
and  downward,  of  the  windpipe  normal  in  the  individual." 
(Walshe,  op.  cit.,  p.  i8.) 

In  contraltos  the  break  between  two  of  their  registers 
is  as  great  and  as  difficult  to  deal  with  as  in  tenors,  and  it 
is  a  noteworthy  and  instructive  fact  that  it  occurs  in  both 


THE  REGISTERS.  2^1 


voices  between  the  same  registers  and  at  the  same  pitch  ; 
that  is  to  say,  it  is  found  in  contraltos  as  well  as  in  tenors 
between  the  "  Upper  Thick  "  and  the  "  Lower  Thin,"  at  or 


about  7R"     J     •  (for   tenors    generally  written  an  octave 


higher).  This  break  is,  in  many  contralto  voices,  so 
marked  as  to  be  noticeable  even  to  those  who  know 
nothing  about  the  subject,  and  it  requires  years  of  patient 
and  persevering  practice  to  bridge  it  over ;  in  some  cases 
this  end  is  never  attained  at  all. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  difficulty  of 
uniting  increases  in  proportion  as  the  "  Upper  Thick  "  is 
carried  above  its  natural  limit.  We  have  repeatedly  met 
with  ill-trained  contralto  voices  in  which  the  "  Lower 
Thin  "  was  omitted  altogether,  the  "  Upper  Thick  "  being 


extended  up  to  ^     s      or  /k    bJ —  where  it  was  followed 


by  the  "Upper  Thin."  These  ladies  really  appeared  to 
have  two  separate  voices,  the  contrast  between  the  registers 
being  so  great.  It  is  almost  superfluous  to  add  that 
under  such  circumstances  it  is  simply  impossible  to  eradi- 
cate or  even  to  conceal  the  break  of  the  voice. 

A  great  deal  has  now  been  said  about  tenors  and 
contraltos,  and  we  have  seen  that  they  are,  in  some 
respects,  exactly  alike.  It  may,  in  fact,  be  asserted,  that 
the  chief  difference  b.etween  them  consists  in  this :  the 
tenor  extends  a  few  tones  below,  the  contralto,  and  the 
contralto  extends  a  few  tones  above  the  tenor.  The  greater 
part  of  their  compass  they  have  in  common,  and  so  far  as 
this  is  the  case  they  produce  their  voices  oy  exactly  the 
same  mechanism.  The  result  is,  as  might  be  expected, 
that  when  they  avoid  the  extremes  of  their  compass,  their 


232  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

voices  are  very  similar,  and  when  the  singers  are  not  seen 
it  is  often  impossible  to  say  with  any  degree  of  certainty 
whether  we  are  listening  to  a  tenor  or  to  a  contralto. 

This  is  a  matter  of  common  experience,  and  we  venture 
to  say  that  there  are  few  musicians  who  have  never  been  in 
such  a  state  of  doubt  themselves.  The  fact  once  admitted 
of  course  immediately  disposes  of  the  mistaken  idea  that 
female  voices  are  but  a  reproduction,  an  octave  higher,  of 
the  corresponding  male  voices,  a  fallacy  which  has,  how- 
ever, by  this  time  been  pretty  generally  abandoned. 

In  sopranos  another  and  rather  curious  difficulty  is 
connected  with  the  question  of  the  registers.  They  have 
in  many  cases  never  discovered  their  "small"  register,  and 
the  consequence  is  that  few  of  these  can  ever  go  above 


-'i except    by  forcing  their  "  Upper   Thin,"  which 


generally  means  shrieking,  and  which  always,  sooner  or 
later,  brings  ruin  to  the  voice.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
these  same  ladies  are  taught  to  use  the  top  register  with 
which  Nature  has  provided  them,  they  are  astonished  and 
delighted  to  find  that  they  can  almost  at  once  sing  much 
higher  than  before,  and  with  such  ease  and  grace  as  they 
had  formerly  thought  quite  impossible. 

Exercises  given  later  on  for  the  easy  management  of  the 
registers  will  be  found  to  answer  this  particular  purpose^ 
completely.  Before,  however,  they  are  applied  to  any 
special  case  the  teacher  must  make  sure  that  he  is  dealing 
with  a  voice  wiiich  has  the  true  soprano  character,  or  the 
experiment  will  fail. 

In  basses  the  registers  give  little  or  no  trouble,  as  the 
difference  between  the  "  Lower  Thick  "  and  the  "  Upper 
Thick"  is  easily  smoothed  over.     The  only  danger  is  that 


THE  REGISTERS.  233 


the  ''Upper  Thick"  is  sometimes  quite  ignored,  from  the 
supposition  that  in  this  class  of  voices  there  exists  but 
one  register.  We  have  met  with  basses  trained  on  this 
principle,  and  their  voices  were,  as  a  natural  consequence, 
of  very  limited  compass,  and  their  upper  tones  had  a  very 
rough  and  unmusical  quality.  Moreover,  they  all  com- 
plained of  a  feeling  of  tightness  in  their  throats  often 
amounting  to  pain,  which  ceased  as  soon  as  they  had 
learnt  to  sing  with  the  proper  mechanism.  But  basses 
must  also  cultivate  the  "  mixed  voice  "  for  the  production 
of  their  highest  tones. 

The  following  rather  amusing  directions  with  regard  to 
the  registers  are  taken  from  Signor  Randegger's  otherwise 
excellent  '  Singing  Primer.'     (Novello,  Ewer  and  Co.) 

Lower  Thick. — "The  column  of  tone  must  be  ener- 
getically pressed  towards  the  lowest  part  of  the  chest,  the 
whole  cavity  of  the  chest  acting  as  a  '  sounding  board '  to 
the  voice." 

Upper  Thick. — ^^''The  column  of  tone  must  be  directed 
downwards,  so  that  it  may  ring  between  the  lower  part  of 
the  throat  and  the  upper  part  of  the  chest." 

Lower  Thin. — "  Direct  the  sound  quickly  and  lightly 
towards  the  front  part  of  the  mouth.  Feel  as  if  the  voice 
came  from  the  lower  part  of  the  throat." 

Upper  Thin. — "  The  sound  must  be  directed  per- 
pendicularly towards  the  roof  of  the  palate,  exactly  behind 
the  upper  set  of  teeth,  so  that  the  voice  may  ring  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  mouth  and  in  front  of  the  head." 

Small. — "  The  sound  must  be  sent  in  an  oblique  direc- 
tion, so  that  it  should  ring  in,  and  reverberate  from,  the 
highest  part  of  the  back  of  the  head." 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  tone  cannot  be 
directed   in   the   fashion   here   suggested    upon  any  given 


234  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

point,  like  a  jet  of  water  out  of  a  fire-engine;  nevertheless 
the  physical  sensations  in  producing  the  various  registers 
are  correctly  described  by  Signor  Randegger,  and  it  is  of 
great  practical  importance  for  the  student  to  be  thoroughly 
familiar  with  them.  We  therefore  strongly  recommend 
teachers  to  call  the  attention  of  their  pupils  to  this  matter 
of  reverberation  whenever  they  rightly  produce  a  tone  in 
any  desired  register,  as  it  will  be  a  great  assistance  to 
them  in  finding  the  register  again  upon  other  occasions.  . 

In  developing  and  strengthening  the  registers  our  first 
exercises  are  based  upon  the  fact  that  some  vowels  are 
most  easily  produced  upon  the  lowest  tones  of  the  voice, 
while  others  are  most  easily  sung  upon  the  highest  tones, 
which  matter  has  already  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Resonance."  It  will,  therefore,  here  suffice  to  repeat  that 
the  "  vowel  scale,"  going  from  low  to  high,  is  oo^  oh^  ah,  at, 
and  ee,  and  that  consequently  the  highest  tones  will  be 
produced  most  readily  when  singing  the  vowels  in  the 
order  just  given.  If  any  one  doubts  it  let  him  reverse  the 
order,  and  he  will  see  how  it  increases  the  difficulty. 


Met.  1 20." 


^fc/r^ 


i 


ah,  ai,  ee,  ai,  ah,  oh. 

oh,  ah,  ai,  ah,  oh,  00. 

Sing  this  exercise  pianissimo,  strike  each  tone  clearly 
and  distinctly,  and  take  a  slight  inspiration  after  every  tone. 
VJB.e_ca^reful  to  take  a  full  inflation  only  at  the  beginning, 
and  afterwards  to  inhale  less  air  than  has  been  consumed 
in  each  preceding  tone,  or  you  would  after  a  while  over- 
crowd the  lungs  and  experience  a  sensation  of  being 
choked.  This  is  a  thing  to  be  avoided  in  any  case ;  but 
under  present  circumstances  it  should  be  remembered  that 


THE  REGISTERS.  235 


the  short  inspirations  are  not  taken  for  the  purpose  of 
re-filHng  the  lungs,  but  simply  to  compel  the  opening  and 
closing  muscles  to  do  their  work.  By  so  doing  we  give 
them  much  more  exercise  than  by  breathing  only  once  at 
the  beginning,  and  what  is  still  more  important  with  regard 
to  our  immediate  object,  we  greatly  facilitate  the  task  of 
the  vocal  ligaments  to  arrange  themselves  in  different  ways 
according  to  the  registers  they  are  to  produce.  ^ 

It  is  self-evident  that  the  danger  of  carrying  the 
mechanism  of  a  register  beyond  its  proper  limit  is  greater 
if  the  vocal  hgaments  are  kept  together,  as  in  legato 
singing,  than  it  would  be  if  they  were  made  to  separate, 
as  they  are  thereby  more  readily  enabled  to  re-arrange  them- 
selves under  different  conditions.  It  will  be  seen,  there- 
fore, that  the  slight  inspirations  after  every  tone  are  an 
essential  part  of  the  exercise,  and  must  on  no  account  be 
omitted.  The  exercise  is  to  be  taken  at  a  convenient 
pitch,  and  then  to  be  raised  semitone  by  semitone  in 
accordance  with  the  requirements  of  individual  voices.  It 
may,  after  some  time,  be  taken  right  through  upon  the 
vowel  ah,  and  finally  legato^  gradually  increasing  the  speed, 
to  the  Italian  word  scala^  singing  the  syllable  la  to  the  last 
note. 

The  change  from  one  register  to  another  should  always 
be  made  a  couple  of  tones  beloiv  the  extreme  limit,  so  that 
there  will  be.  at  the  juncture  of  every  two  registers,  a  few 
"optional"  tones  which  it  is  possible  to  take  with  both 
mechanisms.  The  singer  will  be  wise,  however,  to  avail 
himself  of  the  power  of  producing  an  optional  tone  with 
the  mechanism  of  the  lower  register  only  on  rare  occasions. 
To  force  the  register  beyond  its  natural  limit  is,  of  course, 
infinitely  worse,  and  should  never  be  tolerated.  The 
practice  carries  its  own  punishment,  as  it  invariably  ruins 


236  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

the  voice,  and  tones  so  produced  always  betray  the  effort, 
frequently  in  a  most  painful  degree,  and  are  consequently 
never  beautiful. 

"  Art  goes  after  bread,"  we  know,  and  we  also  know  that 
a  high  x\  in  "  chest-voice  "  goes  down  with  the  multitude, 
and  makes  up  for  many  shortcomings.  But  the  singer 
who  thus  panders  to  the  taste  of  a  musically  uneducated 
crowd  ceases  to  be,  for  the  time,  an  artist,  and  lowers 
himself  to  the  status  of  a  mountebank  who  astonishes  the 
public  by  lifting  heavy  weights,  or  by  performing  other 
acrobatic  feats. 

It  is  evident  that  the  last  exercise  given  may  be  varied 
to  any  extent,  so  long  as  it  is  based  upon  the  principle 
which  has  been  explained.  The  beneficial  results  in  the 
development  of  the  voice  will  be  speedily  noticed,  and 
then  sustained  tones  may  be  sung  through  the  whole 
compass  after  the  orthodox  fashion. 

This  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  "  mixed 
voice,"  which  is  essential  in  bridging  over  the  break 
between  the  "upper  thick"  and  the  'Mower  thin"  of  the 
tenor,  and  which  is  also  frequently  made  use  of  by  bari- 
tones and  basses  in  the  production  of  their  highest  tones. 
We  have  seen  it  stated  in  a  book  on  singing,  of  which  we 
do  not  remember  the  title,  that  the  "mixed  voice"  is 
produced  by  the  full  loose  vibrations  of  one  of  the  vocal 
ligaments  through  its  whole  thickness,  while  in  the  other 
ligament  the  vibrations  are  confined  to  its  fine  inner  edges. 
We  might  as  well  expect  to  see  a  horse  galloping  on 
one  side  and  trotting  on  the  other!  The  explanation  is 
so  amusing,  that  it  might  be  supposed  to  have  been 
intended  as  a  joke.  We  believe,  however,  we  are  doing 
its  author  no  injustice  by  asserting  that  he  made  the 
statement    in    perfect    seriousness;    in    any    case    it    must 


THE  REGISTERS.  237 


be  uncompromisingly  rejected  as  having  no  foundation 
whatever  in  fact. 

The  "voce  mista''  is  "mixed"  in  the  sense  that  it 
combines  the  vibrating  mechanism  of  the  "lower  thin"  with 
the  position  of  the  larynx  of  the  "  lower  thick  "  ;  that  is  to 
say,  while  the  vibrations  are  confined  to  the  thin  inner 
edges  of  the  vocal  ligaments,  the  larynx  itself  takes  a 
much  lower  oosition  in  the  throat   than  for    the  "  lower 

L 

thin,"  and  the  result  is  a  remarkable  increase  of  volume 
without  any  corresponding  additional  effort  in  the  pro- 
duction of  tone. 

There  are,  apparently,  many  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and 
it  must  be  understood  that  the  ease  of  production  which 
characterises  the  mixed  voice  is  due,  not  so  much  to  the 
lower  position  of  the  larynx  in  itself  as  to  the  contraction 
of  the  "  depressors,"  by  which  the  voice-box  is  pulled  down 
towards  the  chest,  and  which  has  the  effect  of  pressing 
together  the  plates  of  the  shield  cartilage  below  the  vocal 
ligaments. 

The  depressors  of  the  larynx,  in  the  performance  of 
this  function,  are  often  so  effectually  opposed  by  the 
"  elevators  ^'  that  the  position  in  the  throat  of  the  voice-box 
is  buthttle  altered.  But  the  contraction  of  the  depressors 
has  nevertheless  the  effect  of  pressing  together  the  lower 
parts  of  the  plates  of  the  shield  cartilage,  as  may  be  seen  by 
the  formation  of  a  hollow  in  front  of  the  throat  which 
extends  from  the  voice-box  downwards. 

According  to  some  authorities  the  "  mixed  voice "  is 
nothing  but  "  chest  voice  "  disguised.  To  this  we  cannot 
agree,  for  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  voce  mis ta 
consists  in  the  perfect  ease  with  which  it  is  produced  when 
the  singer  has  once  hit  upon  the  right  mechanism.  In  the 
upper  thick,  on  the   other  hand,  the  effort  in  producing 


238  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH, 

the  high  tones  of  which  we  are  now  speaking  would 
remain  the  same,  no  matter  how  and  by  what  means  they 
might  be  "  disguised." 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  finally,  that  in  many  tenors 
the  upper  thick  is  naturally  so  light,  and  the  lower  thin  so 
full,  that  there  is,  from  the  beginning,  no  perceptible 
break,  so  that  there  is  no  difficulty  whatever  perfectly  to 
blend  the  two  registers  without  fitting  in  the  mixed  voice 
between  them. 

In  short,  voices  differ  as  much  as  faces.  Strongly  as 
they  resemble  each  other  in  general  structure,  there  are 
no  two  exactly  alike,  and  a  teacher  to  be  successful  must 
carefully  study  the  vocal  organs  of  his  pupils  and  treat 
each  according  to  its  own  individuality. 

A  word  may  here  be  added  about  that  mysterious 
register  the  "  falsetto,"  of  which,  so  far  as  we  are  aware, 
no  satisfactory  definition  has  as  yet  been  given  anywhere. 
Most  persons  understand  by  it  that  series  of  tones  in  the 
tenor  voice  just  above  the  upper  thick  register.  But  these 
tones  may  be  sung  in  two  ways. 

1.  With  the  mechanism  of  the  ''upper  thin"  carried 
below  its  proper  limit.  The  vocal  chink  has  here  an 
elliptical  shape,  the  lid  is  completely  raised,  the  larynx 
widely  opened,  and  all  parts  are  in  a  lax  condition.  In 
accordance  with  this  there  is  a  striking  absence  of  tenseness 
in  the  soft  palate,  and  the  uvula  is  in  nearly  the  same  state 
as  in  quiet  breathing.  The  tones  so  produced  are  feeble 
and  unsatisfactory ;  no  crescendo  of  any  consequence  can  be 
executed  upon  them,  and  no  amount  of  cultivation  will 
render  them  more  powerful. 

2.  With  the  mechanism  of  the  "  lower  thin."  The  vocal 
chink  is  here  linear ;  and  although  the  voice-box  is  still 
more  widely  opened  and  therefore   more  easily  inspected 


THE  REGISTERS.  239 


than  in  the  thick,  yet  the  whole  is  tense,  and  in  accordance 
with  this  the  soft  palate  is  raised  and  the  uvula  quite 
obliterated.  The  tones  so  produced  are  naturally  stronger 
than  those  spoken  of  above  ;  they  may  be  swelled  out  to  a 
considerable  extent,  they  are  capable  of  being  made  more 
powerful  by  practice,  and  they  may,  as  has  been  pointed 
out  before,  be  converted  into  the  mixed  voice. 

The  "  upper  thin  "  carried  below  its  proper  place  is  there- 
fore an  essentially  false  production,  to  which  the  term 
"  falsetto  "  justly  applies.  But  this  is  not  the  case  with 
regard  to  the  '•'lower  thin,"  which  is,  on  the  contrary, 
perfectly  legitimate.  It  is  also  clear  from  this  explanation 
why  it  is  undesirable,  and  from  a  physiological  point  of 
view  even  wrong,  to  apply  the  term  "  falsetto "  to  the 
medium  register  of  the  female  voice. 

It  may  be  pointed  out  in  conclusion  that  we  play  upon 
the  same  instrument  in  speaking  and  in  singing.  Speakers 
must  not,  therefore,  imagine  that  this  chapter  on  voice 
cultivation  does  not  concern  them.  They  will  find  that 
their  voices  will  derive  immense  benefit  from  some  of  the 
exercises  described  in  this  chapter,  and  they  are  strongly 
recommended  to  give  them  a  trial. 

(Voice  cultivation  exercises  with  piano  accompaniments, 
on  the  principles  advocated  in  the  foregoing  chapter,, 
have  been  prepared  by  Emil  Behnke  and  Chas.  W. 
Pearce,  Mus.  Doc.  Cantab.  A  separate  book  has  been 
devoted  to  each  variety  of  voice,  and  the  exercises  are  pub- 
lished by  Messrs.  Chappell  &  Co.,  of  50  New  Bond 
Street). 


240  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


POSITION. 

A  chapter  on  "Voice  Cultivation"  would  not  be 
complete  without  a  few  remarks  with  regard  to  the 
position  speakers  as  well  as  singers  should  assume,  and 
this  subject  may  perhaps  be  best  understood  if  a  descrip- 
tion is  given  of  what  it  should  not  be.  Of  this  we 
unfortunately  find  frequent  illustration  in  the  case  of 
clergymen  when  holding  the  book  out  of  which  they  are 
reading. 

It  is  a  favourite  device  with  many  to  allow  the  lower 
arms  to  rest  upon  the  chest,  and  to  put  the  hands  open 
one  upon  the  other  to  serve  as  a  desk  for  the  book,  which 
is  held  slantingly,  the  lower  edge  resting  against  the  chest 
to  prevent  it  from  slipping  down.  It  is  clear  that  by  this 
attitude  the  reader  seriously  interferes  with  his  breathing, 
because  he  throws  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his  lower 
ribs  by  compelling  them  to  move  the  weight  of  his 
arms,  hands,  and  book  every  time  they  expand  in  in- 
spiration. 

The  next  consequence  is  that  he  has  to  bend  the  neck 
and  to  hang  the  head  in  order  to  be  able  to  see  the 
contents  of  his  book,  and  the  evil  results  of  this  are 
threefold : 

1.  It  makes  hirh  stoop,  thereby  still  further  impeding 
his  breathing ; 

2.  His  chin  presses  upon  the  larynx  and  prevents  it  from 
having  fair  play  ;  and, 

3.  He  throws  his  voice  on  the  ground  just  in  front  of 
him,  so  that  he  is  quite  inaudible  even  at  a  very  short 
distance. 


POSITION.  241 


This  is  about  the  most  unfavourable  position  which  a 
speaker  can  possibly  assume,  and  we  should  find  it  difficult 
to  suggest  anything  by  which  it  could  be  made  worse.  It 
is  no  wonder  that  a  clergyman  habitually  assuming  this 
attitude,  in  his  struggles  to  make  himself  heard  under 
such  adverse,  though  self-imposed,  conditions,  is  quickly 
tired  out,  and  that  he  eventually  suffers  in  health. 

Now  let  the  reader  try  this :  Stand  straight,  shoulders 
back,  chest  active,  head  up,  spine  curved  inwards,  but  not 
too  hollow.  Raise  the  arms  so  that  they  do  not  touch 
the  chest  at  all ;  grasp  the  book  instead  of  letting  it  lie 
upon  the  hands,  and  hold  it  up  high.  Let  the  voice  travel 
straight  over  it,  directing  it  at  the  people  right  at  the  back 
of  the  church,  it  may  be  in  the  gallery.  It  will  be  well 
to  practise  a  similar  way  of  reading  at  home  in  the  presence 
of  a  friend,  capable  of  criticising,  who  should  be  situated 
at  the  far  end  of  the  room.  We  feel  sure  that  both 
speaker  and  audience  will  be  equally  surprised  and  gratified 
at  the  result,  and  neither  will  wish  for  a  return  to  the 
former  method  of  deliverv. 

It  is,  perhaps,  even  more  astonishing  that  clergymen 
make  the  same  mistake  of  stooping  and  of  bending  over 
their  Bibles,  prayer-books,  and  sermons  when  they  have  a 
desk  or  lectern  to  hold  them.  The  remedy  is,  of  course, 
the  same  as  before,  and  there  is  no  need  to  repeat  the 
instructions. 

Singers  are  not  often  found  to  fall  into  similar  errors 
because  no  teacher,  however  little  qualified,  would  for  a 
moment  tolerate  such  a  position  as  that  described  above. 
Singers,  indeed,  more  frequently  sin  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. In  their  anxiety  to  stand  quite  upright,  they  not 
only  take  the  shoulders  back,  but  they  slightly  raise  them  ; 
that  is  wrong,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  section  on  breathing 

R       / 


242  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

(p.  1 81).  Then,  so  far  from  bending  the  head,  they  are 
more  hkely  to  tilt  it  shghtly  backwards ;  that  also  is  wrong, 
because  it  tends  to  fix  the  larynx  in  too  high  a  position. 

These  mistakes  are  as  much  to  be  avoided  as  those 
described  above,  and  the  position  we  have  recommended 
to  clergymen,  with  such  modifications  as  may  be  required 
by  circumstances,  will  be  found  the  most  advantageous. 
No  pains  should  be  spared  until  it  has  become  second 
nature. 


(     243    ) 


y 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A  VOICE-USER. 

Enough  has  been  said  in  the  chapter  on  Hygiene  to  prove 
the  necessity  of  perfect  bodily  health  for  the  efficient  and 
comfortable  performance  of  the  vocation  of  all  voice-users, 
from  the  special  aspect  of  the  parts  of  the  human  frame 
more  directly  concerned  in  voice  production,  and  therefore 
no  preface  is  wanted  for  this  portion  of  our  subject  further 
than  to  say,  that  above  all  other  professions  that  of  a 
singer  or  public  speaker  requires  the  observance  of  a 
strictly  physiological  life — that  is  to  say,  such  a  life  as 
will  most  certainly  ensure  perfect  exercise  of  every  function 
of  the  body. 

A  man's  life  may  be  said  to  be  controlled — i,  by  resi- 
dence; 2,  by  ablutions;  3,  by  clothing;  4,  by  diet;  5,  by 
exercise ;  6,  by  amusements ;  and  lastly,  by  individual 
habits. 

I.  As  to  residence^  it  is  all  important  that  a  singer 
should  occupy  a  well-ventilated  room  and  should  not  sleep 
and  live  in  the  same.  If  he  do  not  occupy  a  house  he 
must  ensure  that  one  room  communicates  with  the  other, 
so  that,  the  windows  of  each  being  open,  he  may  get  a 
draught  of  fresh  air  each  day  right  through  both  living 
and  sleeping  apartment.  It  will  be  preferable  that  he  live 
on  a  hill  with  a  south  aspect,  and  in  a  house  in  which 
every  regard  is  had  to  the  state  of  the  drains,  for  the 
throat  of  a  voice-user  is  always  more  or  less  in  a  state  of 
congestion,  and   therefore  always    more   Hable  than    that 

R   2 


244  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH, 

of  ordinary  persons  to  receive  the  injurious  impressions  of 
any  insanitary  exhalations.  For  this  same  reason  poisonous 
paints  and  wall  papers  should  be  avoided. 

Such  advice  as  the  foregoing  may  appear  unnecessary  to 
many,  but  it  would  not  be  given  did  we  not  daily  see  ill- 
effects  produced  by  neglect  of  such  obvious  precautions  in 
choice  of  a  dwelling-place.  Especially  is  this  the  case 
with  singers  going  to  a  new  city,  and  with  curates  in 
country  villages. 

Naturally  the  climate  will  vary  very  considerably  with 
the  country  in  which  a  singer  may  be  called  to  reside,  but 
it  should  be  his  study  to  assimilate  the  temperature,  &c.,  of 
his  temporary  or  permanent  residence  to  that  of  his  home  or 
that  of  the  last  country  which  he  has  inhabited.  Thus  he 
will  often  require  fires  and  closed  doors  at  seasons  when  the 
regular  inhabitants  may  prefer  open  windows,  and  vice  versa. 

In  this  matter  of  residence  there  are  individuahties 
which  may  require  to  be  humoured.  Some  persons 
breathe  better  in  a  smoky  city  than  in  the  country.  Some 
whom  we  have  known  always  lose  their  voice  at  the  seaside  ; 
some,  subject  to  dry  catarrhs,  enjoy  the  soft  air  of  a  valley  ; 
others,  of  relaxed  habit,  require  the  invigoration  of  moun- 
tains. To  many  who  gain  their  livelihood  by  their  voice, 
attention  cannot  be  given  to  these  peculiarities  all  the  year 
round,  but  at  least  all  may  observe  them  when  they  take  a 
holiday. 

2.  Ablutions.  It  may  be  thought  that  details  on  this 
head  might  be  omitted  and  the  subject  dismissed  in  the 
simple  advice  that  absolute  cleanliness  and  frequent 
ablution  of  the  whole  body  is  good  for  all — singer  and 
non-singer  alike — but  experience  shows  that  many  voice- 
users  negject  bathing  not  from  want  of  taste  or  respect  for 
cleanliness,    but    because   they   are   afraid    of    exciting   a 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A   VOICE-USER.  245 

disposition  to  take  cold.  Thus  one  will  say,  "  I  never  dare 
take  a  cold  bath,  I  should  never  get  warm";  another,  "  I 
dare  not  take  a  hot  bath,  for  I  should  be  sure  to  take  cold 
upon  it."  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  ordinary  cold  bath, 
so  much  boasted  of  by  Englishmen,  however  agreeable 
and  invigorating  it  may  be  to  some,  has  little  to  recom- 
mend it  on  grounds  of  cleanliness.  The  following  is  the 
method  we  advise.  In  cold  weather  take  a  hot  bath,  rub 
the  body  freely  with  flesh-brush  or  glove  and  plenty  of 
soap  (a  coal-tar  preparation  is  the  best  for  cleaning  the 
pores  and  promoting  action  of  the  skin),  then  sponge 
or  douche  with  cold  water  while  standing  in  the  hot, 
and  dry  the  major  portion  of  the  body  before  taking  the 
feet  out  of  the  warm  water.  If  the  bather  is  at  all  liable 
to  take  cold  it  will  be  well  that  he  should  lie  between 
sheets  for  ten  minutes  before  dressing  until  all  fear  of 
perspiration  is  passed  over.  This  bath  much  resembles 
the  Turkish  bath  in  the  following  particulars,  softening  of 
the  skin,  cleansing  of  the  skin,  opening  of  the  pores, 
closing  them  again  by  the  cold  douche  and  reaction  of  the 
skin  afterwards  before  re-clothing.  But  it  lacks  one  great 
quality  of  incalculable  value  to  a  singer,  at  least  in  this 
chmate,  that  of  the  hot  dry  air  inspired  while  in  the 
callidarium^  which  is  so  useful  in  counteracting  the  effects 
of  the  ordinary  cold  damp  air  of  an  English  winter,  or  it 
might  be  said  of  three-fourths  of  the  year  in  a  British 
climate,  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory  tract. 
There  are,  however,  many  who  say  they  cannot  endure  a 
Turkish  bath ;  it  is  believed  by  us  because  they  neglect 
the  following  precautions  which  are  hereby  enjoined  on  all 
Turkish  bathers.  1.  Never  to  bathe  at  a  less  interval  than 
two  hoars  after  a  meal.  2.  To  put  a  wet  towel  on  the 
head  on  entering  the  bath  so  as   to  prevent  heat-stroke. 


246  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

a  fruitful  source  of  palpitations,  faintings,  &c.  3.  To  have 
the  body  slightly  shampooed  and  to  take  a  glass  of  water 
if  perspiration  is  not  active.  4.  To  always  have  the  head 
as  well  as  body  washed.  5.  Not  to  take  a  cold  plunge 
or  swimming-bath  after,  but  to  have  a  douche,  at  first  warm 
and  only  gradually  cold — a  warm  douche  being  at  the 
same  time  or  immediately  after  applied  to  the  feet.  6.  To 
take  sufficient  time  to  cool  before  dressing,  and  during  the 
cooling  process  to  keep  the  whole  body  and  feet  also 
covered  with  a  wrap.  7.  Not  to  take  a  bath  oftener  than 
twice  a  week  in  winter  and  once  in  summer.  Those  who 
in  spite  of  attention  to  these  details  cannot  take  the 
Turkish  bath,  must  be  content  with  the  warm  bath  already 
described.  To  both  it  will  be  agreeable  and  beneficial  in 
summer  to  wash  the  body  all  over  with  soap  and  warm 
water  each  morning  and  then  to  take  a  cold  sponge  bath. 
Those  whose  circulation  is  slow  to  react  should  stand  in  a 
foot-pan  containing  hot  water,  on  leaving  the  cold  bath, 
and  remain  in  it  during  the  time  they  dry  the  body.  It  is 
a  mistake  to  suppose  that  a  cold  bath  is  injurious  when  the 
body  is  heated,  provided  it  be  not  taken  too  soon  after  a 
meal  and  that  the  precautions  we  have  given  to  ensure 
thorough  reaction  of  circulation  be  observed. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  advise  all  who  indulge 
in  sea  or  river  bathing,  which  involves  plunging  or  even 
ducking  the  head,  to  place  a  plug  of  cotton  wool  in  their 
ears  before  entering  the  water.  This  simple  precaution 
may  prevent  an  annoying,  and  even  dangerous,  deafness. 

A  word  may  also  here  be  said  as  to  the  necessity 
for  frequent  cleansing  of  the  teeth  and  washing  of  the 
mouth  after  food  and  just  before  use  of  the  voice.  Re- 
tention and  after-putrefaction  of  small  particles  of  food 
in  the  teeth  is  a  common  source   of  offensive  breath,  of 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A    VOICE-USER.  247 

excessive  saliva,  and  of  discomfort  in  practice  of  the  voice. 
There  is  nothing  better  for  hardening  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  gums  and  mouth  than  cold  water  with  a 
small  quantity  of  ordinary  eau-de-cologne,  which  has  also 
the  merit  of  being  very  easily  to  hand.  As  elsewhere 
stated  gargling,  in  the  usual  acceptance  of  the  term,  which 
implies  irregular  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  throat,  is  a 
useless,  and  sometimes  a  harmful  process,  but  the  holding 
of  cold  water  in  the  mouth,  the  while  throwing  back  the 
head,  so  as  to  thoroughly  lave  the  whole  cavity  of  the 
mouth  and  the.  back  of  the  throat,  is  attended  with  con- 
siderable comfort  and  is  useful  in  keeping  the  soft  palate 
braced.  The  water  should  be  held  in  the  mouth  until  it 
becomes  tepid,  and  then  fresh  should  be  taken,  the  process 
being  continued  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  Bathing  the 
throat  outside  with  cold  water  or  cold  salt  and  water  may 
be  indulged  in,  but  is  of  no  special  benefit,  as  one  might  be 
inclined  to  think,  from  the  frequency  with  which  patients 
ask  to  be  advised  on  that  point. 

Our  remarks  would  not  be  complete  did  we  not  give  a 
word  of  warning  against  the  too  frequent  continuous  use 
of  face  and  neck  powders  and  washes  by  those  who, 
requiring  them  for  stage  purposes,  are  apt  to  indulge  in 
them  at  all  times,  in  the  belief  that  their  appearance  is 
thereby  improved.  While  it  may  be  unhesitatingly  stated 
that  the  pleasure  to  the  on-looker  is  diminished  in  pro- 
portion as  efforts  to  beautify  a  complexion  are  obvious, 
it  may  also  be  accepted  as  a  fact  that  the  skin  and  the 
bodily  health  are  injured  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of 
surface  covered,  and  the  impermeability  of  the  material 
employed.  For  body  use  especially  it  will  be  well  to  have 
a  flesh  powder  that,  being  soluble,  is  non-obstructive  to 
transpiration  by  the  skin. 


248  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

3.  The  question  of  Clothing  is  one  treated  very  irration- 
ally by  singers,  but  one  over  which  they  have  not  always 
entire  or  even  any  satisfactory  control.  We  commonly 
see  persons  enter  our  consulting-room,  class-room,  and  the 
theatre,  and  remain  with  overcoat,  heavy  mantle  and  fur 
which  had  been  donned  as  against  the  cold  of  external  air 
on  leaving  their  homes  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  a  singer  will 
often  enter  a  hot  concert-room  or  the  stage  in  low  dress 
and  omit  to  cover  the  shoulders  in  coming  into  the  lowered 
temperature  and  draught  of  waiting-room  or  wings.  Of 
course  it  often  happens  on  the  lyric  stage  that  a  singer 
is  forced  to  wear  either  too  little  or  too  much  clothing,  in 
accordance  with  the  costume  appropriate  to  the  character 
represented,  but  even  this  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by 
care  on  the  part  of  the  artist  and  attention  to  his  direc- 
tions on  the  part  of  his  "  dresser."  Oscar  Guttman,  in  his 
'Gymnastics  of  the  Voice'  (Leipzig  and  New  York,  1882), 
goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  actors  who  have  worn  heating 
wigs,  &c.,  should  not,  on  leaving  the  theatre,  go  out  into 
the  cold  outer  air  merely  with  a  hat  on. 

Those  who  follow  professions  in  which  a  particular 
dress  is  de  rigueur,  such  as  clergymen  and  soldiers,  often 
suffer  from  being  obliged  to  wear  an  undue  or  an  in- 
sufficient amount  of  clothing ;  but  here  again  much  may 
be  done  in  way  of  correction  by  attention  to  the  amount 
and  character  of  the  underclothing  worn.  Two  questions 
are  amongst  the  commonest  asked  by  the  singer,  i .  Should 
flannel  be  worn  ?  2.  Should  the  neck  be  covered  ?  As 
to  the  first  we  are  of  opinion  that  flannel  or  silk  of 
varying  thickness  should  be  worn  both  over  trunk  and 
limbs  by  all  English  people,  and  all  the  year  round,  as  the 
warmest  garment  in  cold  and  the  most  absorbent  of 
perspiration  in   hot  weather.     In   addition  an  extra  piece 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A    VOICE-USER.  249 

of  flannel  four  or  five  inches  in  depth  should  be  worn — • 
across  the  loins  only,  by  those  inclined  to  be  stout,  by 
others,  around  the  whole  girth  of  the  body,  in  the  same 
region — by  all  who  are  subject  to  take  cold,  who  are  of  a 
rheumatic  disposition,  or  who  are  liable  to  liver  disorder  ;  in 
other  words  by  nine-tenths  of  residents  of  the  British  Isles. 
The  effect  of  such  a  band  is  to  keep  circulation  active 
to  all  the  organs  of  secretion  and  excretion,  and  so  to 
favour  activity  of  digestion  and  assimilation.  As  to  the 
second  point,  there  is  much  diversity  of  opinion,  and  in 
our  belief  it  is  not  of  so  much  importance  to  keep  a  neck 
covered  or  uncovered — that  is  a  question  rather  of  usage 
from  youth  and  individual  experience — as  it  is  that  the 
neck  of  the  voice-user  should  be  un constricted.  No 
button  should  fasten  above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the 
sternum  (breast-bone),  so  that  all  those  parts  left  free  from 
the  bony  cage  of  the  thorax  by  nature  should  be  actually 
unconfined.  The  fashionable  collar  of  the  male  "  masher," 
the  dog-collar  of  the  fast  young  lady,  the  clerical  band 
of  the  ritualistic  ecclesiastic,  the  tight,  rigid  stock  of  the 
soldier,  are  all  equally  unphysiological,  and  when  carried 
to  excess,  as  has  been  proved  by  Surgeon-Major  Myers  of 
the  Coldstream  Guards  in  the  case  of  soldiers,  even  pro- 
ductive of  aneurism,  one  of  the  gravest  disorders  arising 
from  obstruction  to  free  circulation  at  the  root  of  the 
neck.  Constriction  of  this  region  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
glandular  swellings,  enlarged  tonsils,  and  congestions  of 
the  lining  membranes  of  the  throat. 

We  have  already  spoken  against  the  habitual  use  of  respi- 
rators, but  must  repeat  that  it  is  necessary  to  protect  not 
the  mouth  only,  but  nose  and  ears  by  loose  cloud  or  veil 
against  night  air,  dust,  fog,  and  cold  damp  atmospheres. 
We  have  also  alluded  at  length  to  the  detriment  occasioned 


250  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

to  free  respiration  and  ample  tone  by  the  use  of  corsets,  and 
the  hanging  of  excess  of  clothing,  in  the  case  of  females, 
from  the  waist.  Regarding  the  question  of  change  of  dress 
to  something  more  rational  which  is  at  present  being  freely- 
agitated,  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  though,  like  all  re- 
forms, it  is  by  some  urged  with  extreme  zeal,  the  result 
must  in  the  end  lead  to  very  great  improvements  in  the 
health  and  comfort,  and,  when  we  are  used  to  it,  even  the 
artistic  appearance  of  the  more  beauteous  sex.  The  retort 
that  reforms  are  also  needed  in  male  clothing  is  undoubtedly 
true.  We  trust,  however,  we  shall  not  see  any  return  to 
belts  for  supporting  the  nether  garments,  as  has  been 
advocated  in  more  than  one  quarter,  for  if  worn  with 
anything  like  the  necessary  constricting  power  they  must 
inevitably  interfere  with  the  breathing  capacity,  and  may 
even  result  in  grave  surgical  disorders. 

That  there  is  abundant  room  for  reform  in  woman's 
dress  is  readily  admitted  by  all  who  give  the  subject  due 
consideration ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  what, 
direction  the  reform  shall  take.  Theory  and  practice  are 
often  at  variance,  and,  what  appears  to  answer  all 
requirements  in  print,  is  not  unfrequently  found  to  possess 
many  inconveniences  and  objections  in  actual  use.  The 
utihty  of  a  reformed  dress  must  stand  the  test  of  actual 
wear  over  long  periods  of  time,  and  the  dress  must  present 
the  following  features  :  An  even  distribution  of  warmth  and 
weight  over  the  body,  lightness  and  absence  of  constriction 
or  pressure  on  the  one  hand  and  of  undue  fulness  on  the 
other.  In  addition  the  dress  must  not  depart  too  con- 
spicuously from  the  fashion  of  the  period. 

The  above  desiderata  are,  we  think,  fully  met  by  the 
costume  to  be  described.  It  has  had  the  test  of  five  years' 
constant  wear,  and  those  ladies  who  have  adopted  it  are 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A   VOICE-USER.  251 

unanimous  in  their  verdict  as  to  its  comfort  and  ease, 
several  of  them  testifying  to  a  great  improvement  in  their 
general  health. 

The  dress  consists  (i)  of  a  special  woven  and  shaped 
combination  reaching  from  neck  to  ankles  and  wrists. 
This  is  supplied  in  three  materials,  silk-gauze,  merino,  and 
lamb's-wool;  (2)  stockings  drawn  on  over  the  combina- 
tion. Garters  are  not  usually  required,  as  the  stockings 
cling  closely  to  the  combination,  but  where  any  difficulty 
is  experienced  the  stocking-suspender  can  be  used.  Next 
to  the  combination  is  worn  (3)  a  pair  of  knickerbockers, 
which  reach  to  just  below  the  knee,  carefully  cut  to  the 
figure,  with  no  superfluous  fulness.  This  garment  can  be 
made  of  almost  any  material  according  to  individual  taste. 
The  knickerbockers  button  at  the  sides,  thus  securing 
complete  immunity  from  draughts  and  chills  from  changes 
of  temperature ;  the  entire  weight  should  be  buttoned  to  a 
bodice;  (4)  an  ordinary  petticoat  bodice  completes  the 
underclothing.  If  corsets  are  required  the  hygienic  stays, 
described  on  page  116,  are  recommended. 

The  style  of  the  outer  garment  is  left  to  individual  taste. 

One  great  advantage  which  this  reformed  under-dress 
undoubtedly  possesses  is  that  its  adoption  does  not  render 
the  wearer  odd  or  conspicuous  in  the  slightest  degree. 

With  regard  to  its  weight  (which  is  as  equally  spread 
over  the  body  as  possible)  it  may  be  mentioned  that  an 
entire  suit  of  under-clothing  supplied  to  a  lady  weighed 
only  2  lbs.  8  ozs.  It  consisted  of  a  special  merino  combi- 
nation, thick  blue  serge  knickerbockers,  double  warp  calico 
linings,  calico  bodice,  and  cashmere  stockings.  The  lady 
is  5  ft.  4  in.  in  height,  bust  measurement  36  in. 

We  are  indebted  for  the  detailed  information  concerning 
this  comfortable  and  useful  style  of  dress  to  Messrs.  Ward 


252  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

and  Co.,  Ilkley,  who  were  amongst  the  first  to  introduce 
hygienic  costumes. 

4.  The  diet  of  a  voice-user  should  be  that  most  favour- 
able to  nutrition,  with  the  minimum  of  ingredients  likely 
to  produce  fat,  and  also  that  which  is  likely  to  be  most 
quickly  and  most  perfectly  assimilated.  In  giving,  then, 
a  rule  of  dietary  life  for  our  readers,  we  are  simply  pre- 
scribing a  system  most  favourable  for  all.  To  put  the 
matter  in  another  light  we  may  state  that  in  our  professional 
life  we  find  a  large  proportion  of  patients  of  a  gouty  or 
rheumatic  disposition,  which  to  the  non-medical  reader 
may  be  explained  as  a  tendency  to  arrest  and  perversion 
of  all  healthy  secretions,  with  a  ready  liability  to  fermentive 
digestion  and  the  generation  of  acidity ;  a  dietary  rule 
which  excludes  certain  articles  of  food  injurious  to  the 
rheumatic  simply  forbids  what  would,  to  say  the  least  of 
it,  be  of  no  special  nutritive  benefit  to  any  one. 

The  first  distinctive  division  of  foods  is  that  of  solids  and 
fluids,  and  the  quantity  of  each  kind  taken  by  man  should 
be  in  proportion  to  the  composition  of  the  human  body, 
which  contains  twice  as  much  fluid  as  solid  matter.  We 
have  next  to  consider  the  purposes  for  which  food  is  taken  ; 
they  are  primarily  to  repair  the  daily  waste  occasioned  by 
the  act  of  existence,  which  implies  performance  of  certain 
functions  necessary  to  actual  life,  and,  as  has  been  explained 
in  the  remarks  on  respiration,  is  one  of  combustion ;  and 
next  to  enable  proper  performance  of  extraneous  exercise 
of  muscle  and  brain,  so  that  the  individual  may  enjoy  life 
or  may  be  in  a  condition  of  health  to  work  for  his  living. 

Food  of  all  kinds  may  be  further  sub-divided  into  two 
great  varieties — the  nitrogenous  and  the  non-nitrogenous 
or  carbonaceous.  The  proportion  of  these  two  elements 
varies   with    the    food ;    meat    and    fat    containing    most 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A    VOICE-USER.  253 

nitrogen,  the  flesh-forming  or  muscle-forming  principle ; 
vegetables,  sugar,  and  starches,  the  most  carbon  or  heat- 
giving  principles.  Nevertheless,  many  vegetables  and  fruits, 
as  white  beans,  lentils,  apples,  and  green  peas,  contain  an 
abundant  proportion  of  nitrogen,  and,  as  has  been  proved 
by  the  "vegetarians,"  will  supply  all  the  necessary  elements 
for  life,  to  the  exclusion  of  any  necessity  for  eating  meat. 
In  no  one  substance  are  all  elements  of  nutrition  found  so 
well  combined  and  proportioned  as  in  milk,  the  literally 
natural  food  of  all  mammalia. 

The  necessity  for  nutriment  varies  according  to  the 
extent  and  character  of  work  required  from  the  body  of 
the  consumer.  Persons  in  full  health  and  with  moderate 
calls  on  muscular  activity  require  twice  as  much  nitro- 
genous or  muscular  nutriment  as  is  necessary  for  mere 
subsistence,  and  about  two-thirds  of  what  would  be  neces- 
sary for  the  day-labourer  who  lives  by  the  sweat  of  his 
brow.  The  proportion  of  carbon  or  heat-giver  to  be 
taken  will  vary  with  season  of  year  and  climate. 

Considering  how  little  exercise  is  taken  by  the  singer, 
and  how  comparatively  little  is  the  muscular  effort  required 
for  performance  of  his  duties,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
meat  should  be  eaten  more  sparingly  than  is  the  general 
custom,  and  this  remark  would  apply  to  the  majority  of 
professional  workers  as  distinguished  from  the  actual 
labouring  classes.  As  an  ordinary  rule  we  believe  that  it 
would  be  better  that  the  largest  meat  meal  should  be 
eaten  at  the  close  of  a  day,  except  for  a  certain  proportion 
of  persons,  such  as  those  subject  to  asthma,  who  are  obliged 
to  allow  seven  or  eight  hours  to  elapse  between  a  meat 
meal  and  the  period  for  retirement  at  night,  but  such  a 
plan  is  impossible  for  voice-users,  and  the  dinner  hour  or 
time  for  the  principal  meal  must  be  regulated  by  the  time 


254  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

at  which  the  voice  is  to  be  professionally  exercised.     And 
this  is  a  powerful  cause  of  the  vocalist's  digestive  troubles — 
the  unavoidable   irregularity   of  meal-times.     An  interval 
of  at  least   four  hours  for  singers  and  of  two   hours  for 
speakers  between  a  full  meal  and  use  of  the  voice  is  in  all 
cases  advisable.     An  hour  after  a  meal  is  the  time  at  which 
the  stomach  is  fullest,  and  consequently  the  lung  capacity 
is  smallest ;  it  is  also  the  time  when  the  vessels   of  circu- 
lation  are  in   most  active  work,   and   therefore  when  all 
the  internal  organs  are  most  engorged.     There  is  another 
great  difficulty  in  regulating  the  dietary  hours  of  a  singer, 
namely,  that   the  period  of  work,  in  operas  and  concerts 
especially,  may  extend  over  several  hours,  with  intervals  of 
rest  between  of  very  varying  duration.     After  the  first  act 
of  an  opera  or  execution  of  the  first  song,  the  singer  will, 
to    a   certain  extent^  have  exhausted  his  energies,  which 
will  be  still  further  enfeebled  by  the  fatigue  of  waiting  for 
his  next  call,  and  thus  it  is  that  many  singers  are  said  to 
fall  off  in  vocal  strength  at  the  end  of  an  evening's  work. 
In    those   cases   where,    on    account   of  nervousness,    the 
digestion  is  slow,  and  in  which,  as  a  consequence,  a  very 
long  interval   between  eating   and   singing   is   necessarily 
prolonged,  it  may  be  very  advisable  to  take  a  little  beef- 
tea,  or  some  of  the  many  excellent  meat  extracts  now  so 
largely  sold,  about  an  hour  before  the  first  song,  and  in 
case  of  an  interval  occurring  before  the  next,  immediately 
after  it.     Still  better  is  a  raw  egg,  seasoned  with  a  few  grains 
of  salt  and  a  few  drops  of  vinegar,  swallowed  whole  about 
twenty  minutes  or   even  less  before  call  on  the  voice  is 
made.     This  is  especially  serviceable  and  agreeable  when 
the   throat  becomes  unduly  dry  from   nervousness.     We 
have  said  that  very  exceptionally  a  glass  of  champagne 
may  be  allowed  before  use  of  the  voice  in  cases    of  ex- 


THE  BAIL  V  LIFE  OF  A    VOICE-USER.  255 

treme  and  uncontrollable  nervousness ;  we  would  strongly 
urge  that  the  instance  in  which  such  indulgence  may  be 
observed  is  indeed  very  rare,  and  were  it  not  that  we  have 
known  instances  in  which  this  slight  and  quickly  diffusible 
stimulant  had  really  been  of  service,  we  would  not  mention 
it  except  in  the  way  of  caution.  Like  all  artificial  stimula- 
tion it  is  a  remedy  certain  to  be  followed  by  injurious 
reaction.  Much  better,  as  more  sure,  active,  and  perma- 
nent in  its  effects,  and  as  attended  by  a  minimum  of  after 
reaction,  is  the  wine  known  by  the  name  of  its  introducer, 
Mariani^  of  Paris,  the  active  medical  principle  of  which 
is  the  coca-leaf,  a  plant  much  valued  in  South  America 
and  other  sub-tropical  regions  as  capable  of  sustaining 
muscular  strength,  and  ensuring  against  fatigue  in  long 
journeys  through  regions  and  under  circumstances  in 
which  other  food  is  difficult  to  be  obtained.  The  repeated 
testimonies  in  favour  of  the  effect  of  this  wine  on  the  vocal 
muscles  and  respiration  of  many  patients  and  pupils,  and 
of  many  very  eminent  singers  and  actors,  as  well  as  our 
joint  personal  experience,  is  undoubted  and  most  strong. 
But  caution  must  again  be  repeated  as  to  the  advisability 
of  extreme  moderation  in  its  use  and  indulgence  only  to 
the  extent  of  necessity  and  not  of  luxury. 

Supper  is  a  meal  much  indulged  in  by  the  singer  and 
actor,  and  is  one  for  which  there  is  much  excuse,  since 
proper  use  of  the  voice  engenders  hunger^  but  it  may 
interfere  with  healthy  and  refreshing  sleep,  and  must 
therefore  be  taken  only  by  those  whose  digestive  powers 
will  allow  of  its  observance. 

Without  going  into  elaborate  discussion  of  the  varying 
qualities  of  digestibility  and  nutritious  power  of  all  articles  of 
food,  a  few  remarks  as  to  what  should  be  avoided  and  of  what 
may  be  with  advantage  partaken  will  doubtless  be  acceptable. 


256  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

In  the  first  place,  although  fat  and  sugar  are  permissible, 
and  even  necessary,  as  articles  of  diet,  both  these  ingre- 
dients in  a  state  of  change  are  liable  to  favour  flatulent 
dyspepsia,  acidity,  and  consequent  impairment  of  respira- 
tion and  vocalisation.  Thus,  while  on  the  one  hand, 
butter  may  be  taken  with  bread,  salad  oil  with  fresh 
vegetables,  or  sugar  in  tea,  on  the  other  all  pastry,  suet 
puddings,  melted-butter  sauces,  and  excess  of  fat  meat,  and 
jam  (not  marmalade),  malt  liquor,  and  sparkUng  wines  in 
which  the  fermentive  process  is  not  completed,  should  be 
excluded.  In  Hke  manner  the  majority  of  root  vegetables, 
especially  those  that  contain  sugar,  are  liable  to  promote 
flatulence ;  and  since  they  most  of  them  contain  but  little 
nutritious  properties,  are  to  be  debarred.  Under  this  head 
will  come  beetroot,  turnips,  parsnips,  carrots,  and  radishes. 
Potatoes  are  not  to  be  universally  or  altogether  excluded, 
but  their  importance  in  the  dietary  scale  is  exaggerated,  and 
by  some  they  cannot  be  digested.  Artichokes,  although 
containing  sugar,  are  more  nutritious  and  less  indigestible, 
probably  because  they  contain  less  fibrous  tissue  than  those 
root  vegetables  previously  named.  Salads  and  all  green 
vegetables  are  as  a  rule  most  wholesome.  We  decline  to 
give  an  opinion  on  cucumber,  although  we  confess  to  a 
conviction  that  it  is  a  vegetable  often  wrongfully  accused  of 
mischief  to  the  digestion. 

Some  dieticians  consider  all  uncooked  green  vegetables 
injurious.  This  is  not  our  experience.  Tomatoes  un- 
cooked are  both  nutritious  and  easy  of  digestion.  Of 
meats  to  be  avoided,  the  fat  of  pork  and  salted  provisions 
may  be  named ;  and  of  fish,  salmon  and  eels.  The  sun 
fruits  in  season  and  all  succulent,  juicy  fruits  are  generally 
acceptable ;  stone  fruits,  as  plums  and  cherries,  contain 
but   little    nourishment,    and    should    be    taken    cooked. 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A    VOICE-USER.  257 

Nuts  of  all  kinds  are  to  be  avoided.  Of  condiments, 
all  hot  peppers,  hot  pickles  and  curries  are  injurious, 
as  leading  to  artificial  stimulation  of  the  blood-vessels 
and  follicles  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat,  &c., 
with  the  effect  of  relaxation  on  reaction.  It  is  on  this 
account  that  we  have  so  urgently  and  consistently  advised 
against  indulgence  in  the  use  of  every  kind  of  lozenge 
containing  cayenne  pepper,  pyrethrum,  &c.  Nervousness 
interferes  greatly  with  digestion,  and  many  singers  are 
unable,  even  several  hours  before  the  hour  of  their  duty, 
to  eat  on  that  account.  Great  aid  is  often  rendered  in 
such  cases  by  the  taking  of  a  pepsine  pill,  pepsine  wine,  or 
one  of  the  known  and  approved  maltine  preparations,  of 
which  Malto-Yerbine  is  probably  the  best  for  the  purpose 
of  our  readers.  It  is  always  well,  however,  to  seek  medical 
advice  in  such  cases. 

The  question  of  drinking  involves  three  principles : 
I.  Quantity;  2.  Temperature;  and  3.  The  nature  of  the 
beverage.  First,  as  to  quantity.  Although,  as  previously 
stated,  more  fluid  food  is  required  than  solid,  it  is  never- 
theless true  that  the  less  fluid  that  is  taken  during  a 
meal  the  quicker  will  be  the  digestion.  Fluid  between 
meals  is  seldom  advisable  and  often  harmful.  For  the 
same  reasons  as  those  just  given  regarding  condiments,  all 
fluids,  as  tea,  coffee,  and  soup,  which  are  usually  drunk  hot, 
should  be  taken  at  a  tepid  temperature  by  the  singer. 
Cold  drinks  are  locally  beneficial  to  the  throat. 

Regarding  the  nature  of  the  drink  which  may  be 
permitted  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  singers  complain 
that  hot  tea  deprives  them  of  voice.  On  the  contrary 
we  have  known  not  a  few  instances  in  which  actors  and 
singers  have  partaken  of  small  quantities  of  cold  tea  as 
an  aid  to  their  public  vocal  exercise,  and  we  have  hardly 

s 


258  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

ever  known  a  case  in  which  either  coffee  or  cocoa  had  been 
stated  to  be  injurious.  The  alkaloid — that  is,  the  essential 
principle  of  all  three  beverages — is  very  similar — in  fact 
practically  the  same.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the 
deleterious  eiFect  of  tea-drinking  does  not  depend  on  the 
supposed  properties  of  its  alkaloid  to  cause  palpitation  of 
the  heart,  for  coffee  and  cocoa  would  act  in  the  same  way, 
though  possibly  with  less  intensity.  The  cause  of  its  dis- 
agreement must  then  be  ascribed  to  three  other  factors  : 
first,  that  much  larger  quantities  of  tea  are  usually  drunk 
with  a  disproportionate  amount  of  solid  food  than  with 
coffee,  which,  except  at  a  full  meal,  is  taken  en  demi  tasse^ 
or  than  cocoa,  which  contains,  in  the  form  usually  sold,  so 
large  an  amount  of  solid  material.  It  is  thus  probable  that 
tea  is  more  liable  to  cause  flatulence,  with  such  a  consequent 
enlargement  of  the  stomach,  as  to  greatly  interfere  with  the 
capacity  for  midriff  breathing.  Dr.  Ringer's  remarks  on 
this  subject  are  so  very  pertinent  that  we  quote  them: — 

"  In  flatulent  dyspepsia  few  substances  are  more  to  be 
avoided  than  tea,  for  tea  itself  in  this  complaint  is  found  to 
promote  flatulence ;  and  women,  the  chief  sufferers  from 
this  disagreeable  form  of  dyspepsia,  are  apt  to  drink  large 
quantities  of  weak  tea,  and  the  excess  of  fluid  keeps  up  the 

distension "     ('A  Handbook  of  Therapeutics,'  by 

Sidney   Ringer,    M.D.     Seventh  Ed.,   p.  551.     London: 
Lewis.) 

The  second  cause  of  its  harmful  effects  may  be  due  to 
the  large  amount  of  hot  fluid  consumed  at  a  draught ;  for, 
as  has  been  just  pointed  out,  the  frequent  taking  of  hot 
drinks  is  a  fruitful  cause  of  relaxation  of  the  throat.  Being 
anxious  to  have  independent  confirmation  of  this  view,  we 
wrote  to  Dr.  Albert  Bernays,  of  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  as 
the  most  eminent  authority  on  all  questions  relating  to  the 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A   VOICE-USER.  259 

chemistry  of  food,  and  we  are  glad  to  be  able  to  state 
that  his  reply  was  in  complete  agreement  with  us.  He 
further  suggested  that  as  the  tannin  of  the  tea  is  extracted 
in  proportion  to  the  time  it  stands  and  cools,  cold  tea  taken 
in  small  quantities  might,  since  it  would  contain  more 
tannin,  act  as  an  astringent  as  well  as  a  stimulant. 

It  is  just,  however,  the  large  proportion  of  tannin  con- 
tained in  tea  that  makes  the  beverage  less  suited  (when 
taken  in  quantities)  to  most  digestions  than  coffee  and 
cocoa  ;  for  the  tannin  in  the  tea,  of  which  there  is  about  26 
per  cent.,  is  apt  to  combine  with  the  gelatine  of  the  meat 
and  to  form  a  tannate  of  gelatine — in  other  words  the  basis 
of  leather,  and  a  highly  indigestible  compound.  Coffee 
contains  only  5  per  cent,  of  tannin,  and  hence  it  has  a  less 
effect  in  that  direction,  while  cocoa  contains  none  at  all. 

Our  advice,  therefore,  is  that  with  meals,  tea,  coffee,  or 
cocoa  may  be  drunk  according  to  individual  taste  and 
digestion,  but  that,  as  a  beverage  or  stimulant  taken  before 
singing,  cocoa,  small  quantities  of  coffee  at  moderate 
temperature,  or  very  small  quantities  of  cold  tea  are  pre- 
ferable ;  but  that  hot  tea  indulged  in  immoderately  is 
harmful  to  the  digestion  of  all,  and  directly  injurious 
to  voice-users.  Even  in  moderate  quantities,  however, 
tea  cannot  be  borne  by  some  people. 

Still  another  word  as  to  effervescing  drinks,  which  are 
very  refreshing  and  agreeable  to  many.  We  are  obliged  to 
condemn  all  manufactured  lemon  and  other  ades,  as  also 
bottled  preparations  of  lime-juice ;  but  fresh  lemon-juice  with 
soda-water  is  both  wholesome  and  palatable.  Aerated  mineral 
waters  from  only  the  best  makers  should  be  taken,  since,  if 
a  potash,  soda,  or  lithia  drink  is  required,  it  is  as  well  to  have 
a  guarantee  that  the  proper  amount  of  active  ingredient  is 
contained,  as  also  that  the  water  is  of  pure  quality.     The 

s  2 


26o  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

recently  introduced  "  Salutaris "  water,  which  is  guaranteed 
to  be  absolutely  pure  distilled  water  aerated  with  carbon 
oxygen  gas,  has  the  double  merit  of  purity  and  cheapness, 
and  is  an  excellent  water  drink  which  can  be  obtained  of  all 
chemists  in  towns  visited  by  the  singer  in  which  the  water 
supply  might  not  be  all  that  was  desirable.  For  home  use, 
where  the  character  of  the  drinking-water  is  known,  a  gaso- 
gene  efficiently  aerates,  and  any  ingredient,  as  soda  or  lithia, 
can  be  added  in  proportion.  Where  the  quality  of  the 
water  is  doubtful  distilled  water  can  be  employed.  Those 
whose  digestions  are  weak,  or  who  cannot  take  much  solid 
food  even  several  hours  before  singing,  will  find  the  milk 
preparations,  Koumiss  and  Sparkling  Bland,  now  sold  by 
the  Aylesbury  Dairy  Company,  to  be  of  high  value. 

Then  as  to  alcohol.  It  will  be  presumed  from  our 
previous  remarks  that  we  do  not  advise  its  general  or 
habitual  use,  neither  do  we  unreservedly  forbid  it.  But  it 
may  be  simply  laid  down  as  an  axiom — indeed  as  a  truism 
— that  whereas  there  are  an  infinite  number  of  diseases 
occasioned  by  alcohol,  there  are  none  due  to  its  non- 
indulgence,  and  but  few  states  of  health  or  disease  in 
which  it  is  absolutely  indispensable.  Further,  let  it  be 
remembered  that  the  less  alcohol  is  indulged  in  as  an 
habitual  drink  the  less  will  be  required,  and  the  more 
efficiently  will  it  act,  when  administered  by  the  physician  as 
a  remedy  for  any  diseased  condition.  One  more  statement: 
alcohol  seldom,  if  ever,  improves  powers  of  work ;  it  often, 
and  indeed  always,  impairs  its  value.  If  it  give  force,  en 
revanche,  it  diminishes  accuracy,  and  on  reaction  leads  to 
enfeeblement.  It  has  further  been  abundantly  proved  by 
human  example,  and  by  experiments  on  animals,  that 
alcohol  has  no  power  to  temper  the  effects  of  either  heat 
or  cold  ;  and  the  most  healthy  sailors  in  Arctic  regions,  the 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A   VOICE-USER.  261 

best  soldiers  in   tropical  climes,   have  been  in  each   case 
abstainers. 

But  having  conceded  so  much  it  may  be  allowed  that  a 
moderate  indulgence  once  a  day  in  some  light  wine — for 
singers  preferably  claret,  Burgundy,  or  a  light  Hungarian 
red  wine  as  Carlowitz — at  the  end  of  the  days  work  is 
not  only  harmless,  but  is  even,  as  a  recuperative  agent 
and  as  a  waste  preventer,  serviceable,  and  no  good  pur- 
pose can  be  served  by  a  rigid  or  bigoted  ascetism  on 
this  question.  Malt  liquors  are  injurious  because  dif- 
ficult of  digestion,  except  to  those  who  are  called  upon 
for,  or  who  indulge  in,  a  great  amount  of  physical 
labour  and  exercise.  Ardent  alcohol,  whether  as  brandy, 
whisky,  and  gin,  is  bad  for  all  persons,  and  we  have  no 
faith  in  the  fashionable  but  dangerous  prescription  of 
many  physicians,  of  brandy-and-water  and  whisky-and- 
water,  in  preference  to  wine  as  an  aid  to  digestion.  Hot 
spirits  and  water  is  the  acme  of  alcoholic  abomination. 

5.  Exercise  has  been  already  considered  in  its  special 
aspect  of  singing  and  speaking,  and  sufficient  directions  for 
its  regulation  and  performance  are  given  in  another  place. 
It  is,  however,  quite  another  question  as  to  how  much  and 
what  kind  of  general  bodily  exercise  is  beneficial  and 
desirable  for  the  singer.  Without  doubt  the  majority  of 
singers,  especially  females  and  foreigners,  neglect  general 
exercise,  of  which  walking  in  the  open  air  for  an  hour  or 
two  daily  at  a  moderate  pace  is  the  most  rational,  easily 
attainable,  and  in  all  respects  generally  applicable.  On  the 
other  hand,  for  fear  of  taking  cold,  vocalists  hesitate  to 
go  out  of  doors  unless  the  weather  is  what  they  consider 
absolutely  perfect,  and  the  consequence  is  that  there  is 
developed  a  general  enfeeblement  of  the  muscles  of  the 
body,  with  a  slowness  of  circulation,  engorgement  of  internal 


262  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

organs  exercising  a  directly  injurious  influence  on  the 
organ  of  voice,  a  tendency  to  corpulence,  in  itself  a 
cause  of  diminished  respiratory  and  vocal  power,  and  an 
increased  liability  to  take  cold  from  abnormal  coddling 
and  seclusion  within  the  house. 

This  much  having  been  admitted  it  remains  to  be  said 
that  whereas  exercise  of  the  singing  voice  could  never 
injuriously  affect  the  athlete,  cricketer,  runner,  &c.,  in- 
dulgence to  anything  like  excess  or  even  to  moderation 
on  the  part  of  a  singer  in  athletic  exercises  may  have  a 
very  direct  deteriorating  result  on  the  voice :  first,  by 
undue  training  in  diet,  &c.,  necessary  to  athletic  effective- 
ness ;  secondly,  by  fatigue  of  the  muscles  of  locomotion, 
which  acts  both  in  a  direct  and  reflex  manner  on  the 
special  muscles  of  respiration  and  vocalisation.  To  put  it 
plainly  and  shortly,  no  one  could  sing  if  "  out  of  breath  " 
with  running,  and  what  is  true  for  a  sudden  spurt  would 
be  equally  true  if  this  extra  effort  of  exercise  were  per- 
formed as  a  matter  of  daily  habit.  While,  then,  we  enjoin, 
and  most  strongly  urge,  daily  out-of-door  walking  or  riding 
in  moderation,  we  with  equal  earnestness  would  caution 
against  anything  like  training  or  exercise  to  the  extent 
of  excellence  or  emulation  in  any  muscular  pursuit. 

6.  What  has  been  said  with  regard  to  exercise  will 
with  equal  force  apply  to  amusements.  Bodily  fatigue, 
shortened  hours  of  rest,  heated,  ill-ventilated,  or  draughty 
atmospheres,  as  found  in  theatres,  with  the  addition  of  dust 
of  a  more  than  usually  irritating  character,  in  the  case  of 
ball-rooms,  are  all  likely  to  deteriorate  from  functional 
activity,  ease,  and  purity  of  the  singer  or  orator,  and,  hard 
as  it  may  appear,  must  often  be  foregone,  by  him  who 
values  eminence  in  his  profession,  to  an  extent  not  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  any  other  calling. 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A   VOICE-USER.  263 

Of  sports,  those  in  which  continuous  movement  without 
the  risk  of  arresting  an  over-heated  body  temperature  by 
sudden  coohng,  are  the  most  permissible.  Swimming, 
skating,  shooting,  all  to  the  extent  of  moderation,  come 
under  such  a  classification  ;  cricket,  football,  lawn  tennis, 
and  hunting  have  all  of  them  a  tendency  to  the  danger 
indicated.  We  would  give  one  word  of  caution  regarding 
amusements  of  general  application,  but  none  the  less 
necessary  to  our  voice-using  readers.  It  is  that  indulgence 
in  amusements  and  sports  of  all  kinds  is  carried,  by 
Englishmen  especially,  to  excess,  so  as  to  literally  render 
pleasure  toil.  We  have  often  enabled  persons  to  enjoy  the 
pleasures  of  sport  and  game  to  whom  it  had  been  for- 
bidden because  deemed  injurious  to  health,  by  the  simple 
advice  to  practise  moderation,  as,  for  example,  to  shoot 
only  till  lunch  time,  to  follow  the  hounds  only  in  one  run, 
and  to  play  but  one  or  two  games  of  lawn  tennis.  The 
rationale  of  such  advice  is  obvious. 

Lastly.  There  are  certain  habits  indulged  in  by  all 
which  hardly  come  under  any  of  the  previous  headings, 
but  which  are  nevertheless  of  considerable  importance  in 
their  bearing  on  the  hygiene  of  the  vocalist.  The  chief  of 
these  is  that  of  smoking  and  the  use  of  tobacco.  We 
would  preface  our  observations  with  repetition  from  our 
previous  printed  remarks  often  quoted  by  others.  "  It 
will  be  admitted  that  in  no  case  can  the  health  be  positively 
improved  by  indulgence  in  the  habit,  although  one  hears 
much  from  ardent  smokers  of  the  soothing  properties  of 
tobacco.  When  it  is  considered,  however,  that  Mario, 
who  preserved  his  voice  for  a  much  longer  period  than 
most  tenors,  was  hardly  ever,  except  when  actually  singing, 
without  a  cigar  in  his  mouth,  it  cannot  be  stated  that 
smoking  is  necessarily  injurious  to  the  voice.     But  as  rules 


264  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

are  made  for  average  and  not  exceptional  cases,  we  would 
not  on  such  a  precedent  advise  singers  to  take  to  tobacco 
with  an  expectation  of  thereby  becoming  a  Mario,  any- 
more than  we  would  counsel  stout  drinking  as  a  certain 
method  of  producing  a  Malibran.  Our  advice  generally 
is,  that  if  smoking  be  accompanied  by  much  expectoration 
it  should  be  discontinued,  as  an  over-stimulation  of  the 
salivary  glands  will  lead  to  general  dyspepsia  and  to  local 
dryness.  In  all  cases  the  singer  must  be  guided  by  his 
own  individual  experience,  and  should  practise  great 
moderation  in  the  habit ; "  remembering  that  the  effect  of 
tobacco  is  two-fold,  first,  by  the  general  effect  of  its  active 
principle,  nicotine,  as  a  powerful  depressant  of  the  nervous 
centres,  and,  secondly,  by  its  local  effects  on  the  mucous 
membrane,  occasioning  disorder  of  the  secreting  follicles, 
and  of  secretion.  The  use  of  cigarettes,  often  condemned 
as  the  worst  form  of  smoking,  is  probably  the  least  harm- 
ful if  practised  with  proper  precautions,  which  are  very 
well  defined  in  a  recent  letter  to  the  Lancet  (June  2,  1883) 
by  Sir  Henry  Thompson,  and  here  subjoined. 

/  "  Sir, — I  think  I  might,  if  permitted,  offer  you  a  prac- 
tical hint  of  some  value  in  connection  with  cigarette 
smoking,  which  I  think  is  not  altogether  appreciated  by 
the  author  of  your  notes  on  the  subject. 

"First,  the  cigarette,  without  a  mouthpiece,  is  really 
never  smoked  more  than  half  way  through  in  the  East, 
where  cigarettes  are  very  cheap.  It  is  well  understood 
there,  as  it  is  by  all  practised  cigarette  smokers,  that  every 
inhalation  from  a  cigarette  slightly  deteriorates  in  quality 
from  the  first.  A  small  deposit  of  the  very  offensive  oil  of 
tobacco  is  deposited  in  the  finely  cut  leaf,  which  acts  as  a 
strainer,  and  intercepts  the  deposit  as  it  passes.     Very  little 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A    VOICE-USER.  265 

of  this  arrives  in  the  smoker's  mouth  if  he  stops  when  half 
is  consumed.  I  have  seen  many  Oriental  smokers  who 
consume  no  more  than  a  third.  Turkish  ladies,  for  ex- 
ample, as  I  have  had  personal  opportunities  of  observing  at 
Constantinople,  will  smoke  fifty  or  upwards  in  a  day,  but,  I 
need  scarcely  say,  only  in  the  manner  I  have  described. 

"  Secondly,  if  a  cigarette  with  a  card  mouthpiece  is 
employed,  the  noxious  matter  may  be  intercepted  by 
always  introducing  a  light  plug  of  cotton  wool  into  the 
tube.  If  now  the  cigarette  is  nearly  consumed,  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  brown  and  very  offensive  matter  will 
be  found  in  the  cotton  wool,  from  the  evil  of  which  the 
smoker  is  thus  preserved. 

"  Thirdly.  Some  years  ago  I  designed  a  cigarette-holder 
or  mouthpiece,  which  opened  transversely  in  the  middle, 
disclosing  a  small  cavity,  which  is  filled  with  cotton  wool. 
It  would  surprise  many  people,  perhaps,  to  find  that  the 
result  of  smoking  six  cigarettes  only  in  this  tube  is  that 
this  plug  is  saturated  with  a  brown  fluid  like  treacle,  of 
powerfully  offensive  odour,  and  disagreeable  almost  beyond 
belief.  The  wool  then  requires  to  be  changed,  and  in  this 
manner  the  evil  of  smoking  is  very  greatly  diminished. 
Several  of  these  were  constructed  by  a  well-known  tobac- 
conist close  to  your  office  in  the  Strand. 

"  Lastly.  The  maximum  of  pernicious  influence  which 
occurs  through  cigarette-smoking  is  attained  by  the  practice 
of  inhaling  the  smoke  largely  direct  into  the  lungs,  where 
it  comes  into  immediate  contact  with  the  circulation,  and 
the  toxic  effect  is  so  strongly  perceptible  after  three  or 
four  consecutive  inhalations,  and  so  felt  by  a  sensitive 
person  to  the  very  tips  of  the  fingers.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  the  effect  would  in  most  cases  be  notably  recorded  by 
the   sphygmograph "    (an    instrument  for   graphically  re- 


266 


cording  the  waves  of  the  pulse,  and  consequently  the 
strength  and  rhythm  of  the  heart's  action).  "  Such 
smoking  is  of  course,  or  ought  to  be,  exceptional.  All 
the  fragrance,  with  a  little  only  of  the  toxic  effect,  is 
obtained  by  admission  of  the  smoke  into  the  mouth 
only,  still  more  by  passing  it  through  the  passages  of 
the  pharynx  and  nose  ;  but  it  is  the  pulmonary  inhala- 
tion referred  to,  often  associated  with  cigarette  smoking, 
and  rarely  with  the  pipe,  which  constitutes  the  chief 
mischief  of  the  cigarette.  I  may  say,  in  passing,  that 
that  well-known  Oriental  method  of  smoking,  practised 
by  means  of  the  narghileh,  in  which  the  smoke,  although 
drawn  through  water,  passes  invariably  through  the  lungs, 
explains  the  powerful  effects  which  sometimes  unpleasantly 
surprise  novices  in  its  use. 

"Smoked,  then,  simply,  and  with  cotton  wool  interposed, 
I  do  not  hesitate  to  regard  the  cigarette  as  the  least  potent, 
and  therefore  the  least  injurious,  form  of  tobacco  smoking. 
Without  this  precaution  it  may  be  made,  although  not 
necessarily,  the  most  ready  means  of  conveying  the 
active  principle  of  tobacco,  by  means  of  smoke^  into  the 
system. 

"I  am.  Sir,  yours  truly, 

"  H.  Thompson." 

Snuff-taking  is  a  habit  fast  dying  out,  but  any  time 
liable  to  be  revived;  it  is  not  only  uncleanly,  but  it  is 
unphysiological,  and  to  be  therefore  condemned  on  two 
grounds:  ist,  the  undue  stimulation  to  the  capillaries, 
and,  2ndly,  because  the  mechanical  forcing  of  a  powder 
through  the  nostrils,  whose  special  purpose  it  is  to  filter 
the  air  from  such  particles,  is  senseless  and  consequently 
pernicious    independently   of  the   irritant   and   poisonous 


THE  DAILY  LIFE  OF  A   VOICE-USER. 


267 


qualities  of  the  ingredient.  That  there  should  be  found 
individuals  who  not  only  indulge  in  this  filthy  habit,  but 
who  defend  it  by  argument  (?),  is  a  fact  more  interesting  as 
illustrating  a  psychological  problem  than  worthy  of  refu- 
tation by  words  which  would  be  wasted  in  the  quarters 
where  they  would  be  appropriate. 


^ 


:0tB'^^ 


OF  THR 


^ 


268  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


THE  AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER. 

Consideration  of  this  question  must  be  prefaced  by  the 
remark  that  whereas  there  are  but  few  alterations  of  health 
special  to  a  voice-user,  on  the  one  hand  a  certain  im- 
munity from  some  general  diseases  is  experienced  by  the 
professional  vocalist,  while  on  the  other,  a  certain  colour — 
reflected  as  the  direct  effects  of  his  professional  vocation — 
is  given  to  many  maladies  entirely  general. 

Thus  a  singer  or  speaker  who  breathes  through  his 
nostrils  with  closed  mouth,  and  who  thoroughly  inflates 
his  chest,  is  less  liable  to  certain  lung  diseases  which  attack 
those  who  sit  stooping  with  contracted  chest  in  the  close 
atmosphere  of  an  office  or  work-room,  and  the  constant 
breathing  of  such  an  atmosphere  may  lead  to  an  extinction 
of  voice  in  a  person  who,  living  possibly  under  restric- 
tions as  to  conversation,  does  not  use  the  vocal  organ  even 
to  a  normal  extent.  This  loss  of  voice  will  depend  on 
quite  different  causes,  be  of  a  different  nature,  and  require 
an  entirely  different  treatment  from  that  which  will  assail  a 
singer  who  is  liable  to  loss  of  voice  because  of  wrong 
use,  over  use,  or  a  sensitiveness  engendered  by  excessive 
training — in  other  words,  from  functional  abuse.  In  the 
first  case  a  weed  or  a  common  plant  is  killed  by  neglect 
and  want  of  fresh  air  in  an  ill-ventilated  and  over- 
heated atmosphere ;  in  the  second  a  plant  is  wrongly 
cultured  or  so  over  nurtured  as  to  be  unable  to  with- 
stand the  influence  of  the  ordinary  external  atmosphere. 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  269 

To  take  another  example,  a  person  of  sedentary  occupa- 
tion may  suffer  from  indigestion  because  of  want  of 
exercise,  an  active  man  because  of  insufficient  rest  before 
moving ;  a  singer  from  nervous  excitement  incidental  to 
his  profession,  or  from  both  and  either  of  the  before- 
mentioned  causes.  Such  an  ailment  will  affect  his  work 
more  directly  and  immediately  than  it  would  the  office 
clerk,  the  agriculturist,  or  the  journalist.  So  that  in 
considering  these  points  regard  must  be  had  both  to 
cause  and  effect,  and  the  medical  practitioner  occupying 
himself  specially  with  diseases  of  the  vocal  organs  will  be 
frequently  obliged  to  view  general  ailments  and  maladies 
when  affecting  the  singer,  from  a  special — though  by  no 
means  necessarily  from  a  local  point — of  view. 

In  the  chapter  comprising  directions  as  to  the  daily  life  of 
a  voice-user  attention  has  been  given  to  those  rules  of  living 
specially  calculated  to  avert  these  general  minor  diseases, 
but  it  would  be  manifestly  impossible  to  give  consideration 
to  them  one  and  all  in  a  treatise  like  the  present  unless  we 
attempted  a  systematic  work  on  domestic  medicine,  or  a 
popular  discussion  of  the  whole  range  of  throat  diseases ; 
and  execution  of  either  plan  is  very  far  from  our  purpose. 
Let  the  speaker  or  singer,  however,  divest  from  his  mind 
the  idea  that  derangement  of  his  voice  and  disease  of  his 
vocal  organ  is  due  to  special  organic  defect  incidental  to 
his  calling,  however  special  may  be  its  result.  The  throat 
being  actively  engaged  primarily  in  the  performance  from 
the  first  to  the  latest  moment  of  hfe  of  two  vital  functions, 
those  of  respiration  and  of  nutrition,  and  another  hardly 
less  vital,  that  of  ordinary  vocalisation  in  speech,  has  been 
so  constructed  by  an  all-wise  nature  that  idiopathic  or 
self-arising  organic  disease  is  rare.  Where  loss  of  voice 
occurs  the  vocal  ligaments,  which  are  the  essential  parts 


270  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH, 

of  the  organ  for  production  of  vocal  sound,  are  very 
seldom  affected  even  in  a  common  cold,  and  their  intimate 
structure  and  continuity  hardly  ever  impaired  or  destroyed 
except  as  the  result  of  a  specific  disease,  consumption, 
cancer,  &c.,  and  the  cause  of  functional  weakness  or 
loss  of  voice  will  in  the  majority  of  cases  be  found  to 
depend  on  disorders  of  digestion,  fault  of  production,  or 
imprudence  in  functional  exercise,  which  have  induced 
either  a  congestion  of  blood  supply  or  an  impairment  of 
muscular  power. 

Should  this  statement  lead  to  the  retort,  that  if  true,  we 
prove  the  laryngoscope  to  be  of  little  value  in  the  treatment 
of  throat  diseases,  we  would  reply  that  imputation  of 
special  disease  in  the  larynx  is,  for  the  most  part,  laid  by 
those  ignorant  of  laryngoscopic  teachings,  or  by  those 
who  use  it  in  a  narrow  spirit.  We  can  conceive  nothing 
more  consoling  to  a  singer  suffering  from  loss  of  voice, 
than  to  be  assured  by  one  competent  to  explore  the 
larynx,  that  his  vocal  organ  is  free  from  disease,  and  that 
by  correction  of  some  fault  in  his  general  health  or  his 
professional  exercise  his  voice  will  be  restored.  It  is  only 
by  such  a  competent  examination  that  a  safe  and  definite 
opinion  can  be  given,  and  it  may  be  added,  that  in  those 
rare  cases  in  which  there  is  intrinsic  disease  of  the  larynx, 
it  is  generally  hopeless  to  expect  complete  restoration 
of  vocal  purity.  The  practitioner  is  fortunate  if  he  can, 
in  such  an  occurrence,  succeed  in  saving  life,  restoring 
general  physical  health,  and  a  useful  speaking  voice  for 
conversational  intercourse.  It  is  only  by  acknowledgment 
and  recognition  of  the  intimate  and  mutual  relations  of 
nutrition,  digestion,  circulation,  and  respiration,  and  of  the 
external  effects  of  temperature  and  clothing,  that  a  broad 
view   of  throat   ailments    can    be    obtained,   an    accurate 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  271 

opinion  given  as  to  their  cause,  or  a  safe  way  be  pointed 
for  their  cure. 

Let  us  now  consider  briefly  some  of  the  more  common 
local  ailments,  which  may  for  convenience  be  divided  into 
those  affecting  alimentation,  and  those  concerned  with 
breathing  and  voice.  The  first  function,  the  alimentary,  has 
to  do  with  the  food  passage — pharynx  and  gullet ;  the 
second,  vocal  and  respiratory,  with  the  nasal  canals,  the 
larynx  and  wind-pipe.  To  a  certain  extent  there  is  a  ground 
common  to  both  these  passages,  namely,  at  the  back  of  the 
throat — the  fauces ;  and  yet  for  general  purposes  it  may 
be  firmly  asserted  that  disease  in  this  region  almost 
always  implies  disorder  of  the  digestive,  rather  than  of 
the  respiratory,  or  of  the  essentially  vocal,  apparatus. 

Prefatory  to  any  more  detailed  analysis  of  throat 
ailments,  a  few  words  may  be  said  on  the  meaning  of  what 
is  generally  assigned  as  first  cause  of  all  voice  defects, 
namely,  "catching  cold."  This  term  really  implies  not 
only  a  lowering  of  body  temperature  by  cold  draughts, 
but  also  very  frequently  the  reaction  from  an  unduly 
elevated  body  heat  not  necessarily  due  to  lowered  tempera- 
ture or  undue  moisture  of  inhaled  air  or  body  surroundings, 
but  rather  to  a  fever  engendered  by  disturbances  in  some 
portion  of  the  digestive  apparatus.  Many  "colds"  are 
taken  after  a  surfeit  or  an  indiscretion  in  diet ;  but  doubt- 
less many  of  the  attacks  on  singers  are  due  to  neglect  of 
outdoor  exercise,  and  the  unwise  habit  of  living  in  close, 
ill-ventilated  rooms  for  fear  of  taking  cold.  As  a  con- 
sequence, the  blood  is  deficient  in  oxygen,  the  muscles 
become  flabby,  all  the  tissues  are  unduly  loaded  with  fat, 
and  the  individual  resembles  both  in  his  habits  and  in  his 
nutrition,  the  far-famed  Strasburg  goose,  which  furnishes 
the  luxurious  "pdtd  de  foie gras'.' 


272  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

The  ordinary  sore  throat  or  relaxed  throat  hardly 
requires  special  description.  It  is  felt  by  the  sufferer  as 
occasioning  inconvenience  rather  than  pain.  There  is 
experienced  sometimes  no  more  than  a  sensation  of 
tickhng  at  the  back  of  the  throat,  a  difficulty  in  articula- 
tion, or  an  impediment  in  swallowing,  and  then  only  to 
an  extent  of  rendering  performance  of  function  irksome, 
or  in  other  words,  of  making  the  sufferer  "  conscious  that 
he  has  a  throat."  The  term,  nevertheless,  embraces  a 
very  large  field  of  throat  disturbance,  and  may  range  in 
intensity  from  slight  discomfort  to  serious  and  even  vital 
mischief.  It  may  be  caused  by  changes  of  weather  and 
temperature,  imprudence  in  diet  and  disorder  of  digestion, 
the  inhalation  of  noxious  insanitary  emanations,  or  ex- 
posure to  contagion  of  various  diseases,  as  measles,  scarlet 
fever,  small-pox,  &c.  Special  characters  may  thus  be 
given  to  a  "  sore  throat,"  which  will  each  in  turn  require 
separate  treatment,  but  it  may  be  safe  to  assume  that  in 
one  and  all  there  is  a  disorder  of  assimilation  and  of  circu- 
lation ;  so  that  a  day  or  two's  fasting,  or  low  diet  with  con- 
finement to  the  house,  and  without  any  medical  treatment 
beyond  the  taking  of  a  simple  purge,  will  in  the  majority  of 
cases  effect  a  cure.  Many  such  cases  will  be  cured  by  a 
Turkish  bath,  which  has  doubtless  an  influence  on  the 
system,  not  only  general  and  eliminative  through  trans- 
piration by  the  skin,  but  locally  by  the  action  of  hot  dry 
air  on  the  mucous  membrane,  disordered  through  inhala- 
tion of  cold  damp  atmospheres ;  for  that  is  the  kind  of 
weather  most  productive  of  sore  throats.  The  warm  bath, 
elsewhere  described  (page  245),  will  in  many  instances 
have  as  good  an  effect  on  the  general  circulation  as  the 
Turkish  bath,  and  is  more  easy  of  general  adoption ; 
locally,  the  wrapping  of  a  piece  of  flannel  or  of  a  stocking 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  27 z 

around  the  throat  all  night  will  be  sufficient;  in  cases 
rather  more  severe  the  patient  may  suck  ice,  or,  better 
still,  lave  his  throat  internally  with  cold  water,  as  described 
at  page  247,  for  half  an  hour  at  a  time,  or  take  an  appro- 
priate lozenge,  such  as  the  saline  astringent  made  specially 
for  us  and  sold  by  Roberts  &  Co.  Or  he  may  take  the 
effervescing  astringent  of  Cooper,  or  use  an  astringent 
gargle,  though,  as  before  said,  the  act  of  gargling  is  an 
inefficient  remedy  and  not  infrequently  painful.  If  with 
these  measures  relief  is  not  obtained,  medical  advice  should 
be  sought.  When  added  to  the  condition  described  there 
is  really  pain,  it  will  generally  be  found  on  examination 
of  the  throat,  that  in  addition  to  the  more  or  less  increase 
of  redness  and  laxity  of  the  parts  seen  in  ordinary  sore 
throat,  there  is  swelling  of  the  uvula,  pillars  of  the  fauces 
or  tonsils.  Such  a  condition  almost  always  implies  the 
presence  of  a  specific  poison,  generally  the  rheumatic. 
When  there  is  exudation  of  membrane,  it  is  an  indication 
that  the  cause  is  insanitary,  and  though  the  presence  of 
such  a  condition  does  not  by  any  means  imply  certainty 
of  a  diphtheritic  infection,  it  should,  when  detected,  induce 
the  patient  to  at  once  seek  medical  advice. 

This  slight  common  sore  throat  may  assume  a  graver 
type,  and  have  all  the  characters  of  an  inflammation,  acute 
or  chronic.  The  back  of  the  throat  behind  the  soft  palate 
is  then  principally  affected,  and  this  disease  is  known  as 
pharyngitis,  i.e.  inflammation  of  the  pharynx.  Although 
we  speak  of  this  as  a  separate  affection,  it  is  really  very 
seldom  that  in  either  its  acute  or  chronic  form  inflamma- 
tion is  confined  to  the  pharynx :  on  the  other  hand 
the  fauces,  tonsils,  or  uvula  may  be  at  fault  without 
attacking  the  back  of  the  throat.  In  its  acute  form 
it    may   be  the   result   of  a  cold  which  has  affected  the 


274  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

patient  locally,  but  has  also  disturbed  the  digestion,  &c. 
In  its  chronic  form  the  back  of  the  throat  is  often  seen 
to  be  granular,  that  is,  with  numerous  red  elevations  and 
enlarged  vessels.  When  still  more  advanced,  the  little 
glands  in  the  mucous  membrane,  instead  of  being  enlarged 
and  granular,  will  be  seen  to  have  become  atrophied,  and 
the  surface  will  be  smooth  and  glazed.  Accompanying 
these  changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  glandules  there  will 
be  experienced  alterations  in  the  character  and  quantity  of 
the  secretion,  and  the  patient  will  complain  of  either  too 
much  mucus  or  of  excessive  dryness  in  the  throat,  each 
representing  different  stages  of  the  same  disorder.  The 
disease  is  always  associated  with  disorder  of  general  health, 
which  may  be  either  cause  or  result.  However  looked  at, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  chronic  granular  inflammation  of 
the  pharynx  (so-called  clergyman's  sore  throat)  is  the  com- 
monest disorder  of  voice-users  ;  and  in  our  experience  it 
is  always  accompanied — we  would  even  say  caused — by 
faulty  voice  production  in  the  larynx,  i.e.  by  forcing  the 
registers  beyond  their  natural  limits,  which  has  led  to 
consequent  straining,  forcing,  and  congestion  in  the  upper 
or  resonant  portion.  The  symptoms  are  those  of  altered 
secretion  just  described,  irritation,  with  prickings  and 
functional  fatigue  ;  later  we  have  impaired  quality  and 
actual  loss  of  notes ;  if  unchecked,  there  arrives  a  period  of 
complete  suppression  of,  at  first,  singing,  and  then  even  of 
the  speaking  voice,  due  either  to  want  of  control  over  the 
voluntary  muscles  of  articultion  or  to  loss  of  power  in  the 
automatic  laryngeal  muscles :  sometimes  to  both  causes 
combined.  Treatment  of  this  condition  is  of  two  kinds, 
each  equally  important — first,  medical,  subdivided  into 
general  and  local ;  and  secondly,  educational.  Internal 
medicines  and  appropriate  diet  are  useless  to  cure  without 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  275 

local  measures  for  destruction  of  the  granulations,  which 
in  turn  are  only  half  cured  or  subject  to  relapse,  unless 
the  fault  of  voice  production  is  afterwards  corrected.  It 
is  essentially  an  ailment  in  which  self-measures  or  half- 
measures  do  harm,  principally  because  they  delay  the  cure, 
and  delay  in  cure  means  always  a  progress  of  the  malady. 

A  very  common  advice  given,  even  by  doctors,  to  those 
suffering  from  "  loss  of  voice,"  is  "  rest  of  the  organ  with 
change  of  air."  Of  course  so  long  as  the  voice  is  not  used 
the  patient  does  not  experience  impediment  to  functional 
use  ;  and  change  of  air  with  rest  are  always  more  agree- 
able remedies  than  direct  treatment  by  pharmaceutical  or 
surgical  measures.  Nevertheless,  w^e  have  over  and  over 
again  witnessed  cases  in  which  much  money  has  been  spent 
in  seeking  change  of  scene  and  air,  and  much  time  lost  by 
delay  in  treatment,  simply  because  the  patient  has  preferred 
to  take  imperfect  advice  or  to  go  his  own  way,  rather  than 
in  the  first  instance  to  have  been  assured  of  the  cause,  and 
so  have  been  placed  on  the  proper  road  to  recovery. 

As  a  result  of  more  or  less  frequent  and  repeated  attacks 
of  relaxed  throat,  the  soft  palate  may  lose  its  power  of 
contraction — its  tonicity  as  doctors  say — and  this  may 
lead  to  an  elongated  and  relaxed  uvula.  This  condition 
will  have  a  very  serious  effect  on  the  singer's  health ;  first, 
by  direct  irritation  of  his  larynx,  leading  to  troublesome 
cough  or  desire  to  get  rid  of  the  sensation  of  a  foreign 
irritable  body;  secondly,  to  consequent  fatigue  of  the 
vocal  organ,  leading  to  loss  of  high  notes  and  inability  to 
sustain  prolonged  functional  effort;  and,  thirdly,  to  im- 
pairment of  digestion  caused  by  the  constant  desire  to 
swallow,  and  the  consequent  stimulation  to  secretion  of 
mucous  and  digestive  fluids,  which  in  time  leads  to  a 
catarrh.     This  term  "  catarrh  "  is  very  generally,  but  quite 

T  2 


276  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH, 

wrongly,  limited  to  conditions  caused  by  "cold."  Although, 
however,  catching  cold  is  perhaps  the  most  frequent  cause 
of  catarrh,  the  term  rightly  means  any  alteration  of  the 
character  of  the  secreting  surface  of  any  mucous  mem- 
brane, and  may  in  our  present  consideration  imply  either 
an  excessive  or  diminished  flow,  or  an  entire  arrest  of  the 
normal  secretion  of  the  membranes  of  the  throat,  fauces, 
nostrils,  pharynx,  and  larynx,  either  together  or  separate, 
with  an  almost  innumerable  train  of  symptoms  affecting 
the  functions  of  vocalisation,  of  hearing,  and  of  digestion, 
as  well  as  the  general  health  of  the  sufferer. 

Lest  we  might  be  accused  of  exaggerating  the  evils  of  a 
relaxed  uvula  we  append  the  graphic  description  of  the 
late  Dr.  Mandl,  to  whose  work  we  have  so  often  elsewhere 
alluded.  "In  the  chronic  state  the  uvula  remains  elon- 
gated. This  state,  which  is  also  known  under  the  form  of 
'  fall  of  the  uvula,'  is  capable  of  exercising  injurious  effects 
on  the  voice.  The  timbre  loses  both  in  brilliancy  and 
purity.  The  uvula,  which  hangs  on  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  provokes  a  tickling  which  is  repeated  every  second 
and  forces  the  suff'erer  to  heave  and  cough.  At  other 
times  the  cough  becomes  convulsive  and  paroxysmal,  and 
is  accompanied  by  attacks  of  suffocation ;  sometimes  it 
occasions  nausea,  even  to  the  length  of  vomiting — this 
occurring  especially  in  the  early  morning  and  after  a  meal ; 
even  sleep  is  disturbed  by  nightmare. 

"  The  irritation  of  the  back  of  the  tongue  frequently 
extends  to  the  larynx,  the  secretion  of  which  becomes 
thereby  augmented.  There  is  then  expectoration  of  little 
tenacious  grey  masses  which  by  their  presence  on  the  vocal 
cords  produce  the  symptom  known  under  the  name  of 
'  chat '  (there  is  no  good  English  synonym)  in  the 
voice."      (Op.  cit.  pp.  169,  170.) 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  277 

For  the  cure  of  this  condition  it  is  necessary  for  both 
patient  and  doctor  to  recollect  that  a  relaxed  uvula,  while 
influencing  the  general  system,  may  likewise  in  turn  be 
affected  for  better  or  worse  by  all  causes  which  will  affect 
the  general  health ;  and  that  a  cure  is  not  to  be  expected 
by  purely  local  or  purely  general  treatment.  It  is  advis- 
able, therefore,  for  the  sufferer  to  examine  his  own  way  of 
living,  and  endeavour  to  discover  what  it  is  in  his  diet  or 
his  habits  that  appears  to  act  as  an  exciting  cause  of  this 
relaxation,  and  only  to  seek  for  relief  by  local  measures 
after  such  an  investigation  and  subsequent  action.  We 
nevertheless  desire  to  speak  with  no  uncertain  voice  as  to 
the  importance  of  reduction  by  surgical  means  in  the 
length  of  a  relaxed  uvula  so  soon  as  it  is  recognised  as  a 
source  of  health  impairment  and  impediment  to  produc- 
tion of  pure  and  sustained  vocal  tones,  for  there  cannot  be 
a  doubt  in  our  minds  that  the  success  of  such  a  measure 
is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  promptitude  with  which  it 
is  adopted  after  its  necessity  is  recognised.  If  properly 
performed  it  can  do  no  harm — its  delay  can  lead  to  no 
end,  but  to  confirm  the  symptoms  and  render  them  more 
obstinate  of  eradication.  And  let  it  be  understood  that 
"snipping"  the  uvula  does  not  mean  cutting  away  any 
muscular  tissue  or  a  part  essential  to  any  throat  function, 
but  simply  the  removal  of  an  overgrowth  or  excrescence. 

As  we  have  had  occasion  to  say  elsewhere  in  treatises 
more  directly  professional,  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that 
while  there  is  no  throat  ailment,  and  indeed  few  other 
diseases  of  so  benign  a  character  as  a  relaxed  uvula  that 
give  rise  to  so  many  distressing  and  even  serious  symptoms, 
there  is  probably  no  surgical  operation  so  slight  as  the  one 
indicated  for  its  cure,  that  has  so  marked  and  direct  a 
beneficent  effect.     It  is  unfortunate,  as  Mandl  says,  "  that 


2/8 


this  operation  should  encounter  very  ill-founded  opposition 
on  the  part  of  artists,  since  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its 
happy  effect  on  the  voice  due  to  removal  of  a  permanent 
cause  of  irritation  in  those  cases  in  which  it  is  really  in- 
dicated."    (Op.  cit.,  p.  185.) 

Allied  to  the  relaxed  uvula,  both  in  its  injurious  effects 
on  the  voice  and  on  the  constitution,  and  also  unhappily, 
in  opposition  to  radical  cure,  is  the  condition  known  as 
enlargement  of  the  tonsils.  Of  the  primary  value  or  use 
of  these  glands  there  is  considerable  doubt,  but  it  is  certain 
that  at  a  very  early  age,  and  in  the  great  majority  of 
instances,  they  exist  only  to  become  diseased,  so  much  so 
that  a  very  eminent  physician  has  stated  that  were  he  to 
play  the  part  of  a  Frankenstein  and  endeavour  to  create 
a  man,  he  would  omit  the  tonsils.  It  is  generally  asserted 
that  presence  of  enlarged  tonsils  implies  a  scrofulous  dis- 
position, but  this  is  by  no  means  universally  true.  In  many 
instances  there  is  no  such  delicacy,  and  their  existence 
is  quite  as  often  an  indication  of  a  gouty  or  rheumatic 
constitutional  state  as  of  a  strumous  or  scrofulous. 

The  tonsils  are  hable  to  acute  attacks  of  inflammation 
of  varying  severity,  and  leading  sometimes  to  gatherings 
of  purulent  matter,  constituting  the  condition  known  as 
quinsy.  Such  attacks  may  occur  as  a  recandescence — a 
fresh  lighting  up — of  chronic  inflammation  and  enlargement, 
or  to  tonsils,  not  abnormal  in  size  in  the  intervals  of  acute 
attacks.  The  symptoms  are  unmistakable  and  the  distress 
is  extreme.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  seek  personal 
medical  advice  on  occurrence  of  an  attack ;  it  may,  how- 
ever, be  stated  that  there  is  always  an  arrest  of  all  normal 
secretions  preceding  an  attack,  and  that  a  person  subject 
to  quinsy  must  be  very  careful  to  pay  attention  to  the 
healthy    action    of  bowels,    kidneys,  and    skin    by    saline 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  279 

aperients,  to  observe  an  antacid  diet,  and  to  take  regularly, 
frequent  Turkish  or  other  vapour  or  hot  baths.  In  some 
cases  the  tonsils  may  be  the  subject  of  considerable  disease 
.  of  the  follicles  or  crypts  secreting  the  mucus,  which  will 
give  rise  to  constant  irritation,  offensive  breath,  and  dis- 
order of  digestion,  though  not  necessarily  to  either  actual 
vocal  functional  disability  or  to  acute  relapses  of  inflamma- 
tion and  enlargement.  Cases  doubtless  arise  in  which  the 
tonsils  are  to  a  certain  extent  enlarged,  but  yet  give  rise  to 
no  inconvenience ;  it  is,  however,  hardly  possible  that  the 
resonant  portion  of  the  vocal  apparatus  can  be  in  perfect 
order  when  these  glands  are  of  at  all  abnormal  dimensions. 
The  most  prominent  ill-effects  of  diseased  tonsils  in 
the  career  of  the  voice-user  are : — 

1 .  On  the  voice^  which  becomes  more  or  less  husky,  tone- 
less, and  easily  fatigued.  Sometimes  it  is  thick  and  gut- 
tural, and  power  of  modulation  is  always  rendered  difficult. 

2.  Articulation  is  always  impaired,  the  sufferer  spea}$:ing 
as  with  a  full  mouth,  and  having  such  a  difficulty  in  the 
pronunciation  of  certain  consonants,  that  this  condition 
alone  may  often  be  found  sufficient  to  account  for  stutter- 
ing or  other  speech  defect. 

3.  But,  above  all,  respiration  can  never  be  carried  on 
healthily,  since  whenever  the  tonsils  are  diseased  all 
inspired  air  passes  over  an  unhealthy  surface.  Where 
enlargement  is  considerable,  the  lungs  are  never  fully 
aerated,  the  chest  walls  become  narrowed,  and  the  breast- 
bone prominent,  the  patient  is  torpid  and  lethargic,  and 
is  liable  to  attacks  of  pulmonary  congestion.  Further 
evidence  of  obstructed  respiration  through  the  nostrils  is 
afforded  by  loud  snoring,  not  only  in  sleep,  but  in  a  hardly 
less  offensive  form  by  audible  open-mouth  breathing  when 
awake.      In    addition    to    the    foregoing,    the    senses    of 


28o  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH, 

hearing,   of   smell,    and   of    taste,   are    all   more   or   less 
impaired ;  there  is  a  frequent  desire  to  clear  the  throat  of 
the  impediment,  and  there  is  a  very  considerable  disorder 
of  digestion  and  assimilation  of  food.     This  account,  by- 
no  means  overdrawn  or  extended,  of  the  discomforts  due 
to  enlargement  or  disease  of  the  tonsils,  is  given  somewhat 
in  detail  solely  that  voice  teachers  and  voice  users  may 
learn  what  a  variety  and   number   of  functions  may   be 
impaired  if  the  cause  is  not  promptly  attacked.      Unfor- 
tunately there   is   a  prejudice,  very   ill-founded   and   un- 
supported by  any  authority,  against  the  radical  cure   by 
removal  of  enlarged  tonsils  by  the  guillotine,  but,  in  fact, 
it  is  the  least  painful  (it  might  be  said  that  it  is  almost 
painless),  quickest,  safest,  and  in  every  respect  the  most 
effectual.     There  is  no  argument  whatever  of  any  scientific 
value  to  be  advanced  against  the  measure,  and  there  is  the 
very  direct  evidence  in  its   favour  of  many  of  our  great 
singers.     Louisa    Pyne,    Patti,   Lucca,   and    others    have 
undergone  the  operation,  not  only  without  injury,  but  with 
actual  benefits.     Our  observations  are  in  entire  concord 
with  those  of  Mandl,"  that  while  all  applications  of  caustic, 
so  frequently  employed,  are  harmful  rather  than  service- 
able, excision  of  enlarged  tonsils  is  the  most  sure  means  of 
cure,  and  is  followed  by  no  inconvenience  to  the  voice, 
but  is,  on  the  contrary,  always  beneficial  to  it.     One  need 
not,  therefore,  give  heed  to  the  opposition  to  this  operation 
which  comes  from  those  whose  competence  to  give   an 
opinion  on  the  question  is,  to  say  the  least   of  it,  very 
doubtful."     (Op.  cit.,  p.  183.) 

In  many  cases  it  is  not  so  much  the  size  of  the  tonsil 
that  is  the  cause  of  vocal  defect  as  extension  of  its  inflam- 
m.ation  and  thickening  to  neighbouring  tissues,  which 
causes  faults  in  the  muscular  action  of  the  pharynx,  leading 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER,  281 

to  defects  in  brilliancy,  timbre^  &c.,  so  that  on  all  accounts 
the  practitioner  is  justified  in  urging  treatment  and  the 
sufferer  encouraged  to  submit  to  it. 

In  conclusion  we  would  repeat  an  oft-quoted  statement, 
made  many  years  ago  by  Dr.  Bennati,  who  was  both  a  good 
physician  and  a  fine  vocalist,  that  removal  of  the  tonsils 
is  often  followed  by  an  actual  gain  in  upward  range  of 
voice.  This  observation  we  have  often  verified  as  a 
result  of  operations  not  only  on  the  tonsils  but  also  on 
the  uvula,  and  its  truth  has  received  many  independent 
confirmations. 

We  have  thus  alluded  at  sufficient  length  to  some  of 
the  more  prominent  of  the  throat  troubles  visible  to  the 
eye  of  any  person  looking  at  the  back  of  the  mouth  in  an 
ordinary  manner,  and  we  have  insisted  that  they  are  the 
result,  not  of  constitutional  disorders  only,  but  frequently 
of  faulty  teaching  or  exercise.  They  are  amongst  the 
most  easily  removable  of  physical  defects,  but  we  desire  to 
treat  very  briefly  of  actual  laryngeal  trotibles  in  the  singer, 
because  in  the  first  place  they  are  rare,  and  in  the  second 
because  no  good  service  can  be  done  by  suggesting  to 
the  voice-user  the  possible  existence  of  serious  maladies 
which  a  laryngoscopic  examination  would  at  once  dispel. 
In  ordinary  cases  of  loss  of  voice  due  to  climate  or  other 
temperature  causes,  it  is  exceedingly  rare  that  the  vocal 
cords  are  seen  to  be  inflamed.  There  is  usually  in  such 
a  case  a  dry  catarrh  of  the  parts  below  the  larynx — that 
is,  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  wind-pipe  and  larger 
bronchial  tubes — or  of  the  parts  above — that  is,  in  fauces 
and  pharynx.  Even  when  the  general  mucous  membrane 
of  the  larynx  is  congested  or  inflamed,  the  vocal  ligaments 
escape  and  are  seen  in  the  mirror  to  be  quite  normal. 
This  statement  must  be  qualified  only  so  far  as  to  say  that 


282  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH, 

the  vocal  ligaments  in  professional  users  of  the  voice  are 
not  infrequently  somewhat  congested  at  their  posterior  part 
quite  irrespective  of  any  disease,  and  simply  as  the  result 
of  continuous  increased  circulation  to  the  part.  When  a 
singer  is  attacked  with  sudden  suppression  or  loss  of  voice 
consciously  felt  as  result  of  cold,  with  constitutional  symp- 
toms indicating  disturbance  of  temperature  and  secretion  ; 
but  unaccompanied  by  sensation  of  soreness  or  relaxation 
of  the  throat,  and  without  symptoms  of  head  cold,  he  will 
do  well  to  take  first  an  aperient  and  then  a  Turkish  or 
vapour  bath,  so  as  to  set  forward  the  process  of  elimina- 
tion and  bring  about  reaction  of  circulation.  He  should 
take  simple  food  and  remain  in  the  house.  In  this  last 
circumstance  he  may  find  benefit  from  steam  inhalation, 
but  this  form  of  remedy,  although  commonly  employed  and 
prescribed  by  high  authorities,  is  not  without  danger  if  the 
patient  is  still  exposing  himself  to  the  external  atmosphere. 
It  is,  however,  a  most  valuable  measure  when  the  patient  is 
confined  to  the  house,  and  the  steam,  either  plain  or 
medicated,  may  then  be  inhaled  from  one  of  the  many 
apparatus  sold,  or  the  whole  room  may  be  impregnated  with 
the  warm  and  moist  vapour  from  a  bronchitis  kettle. 

A  much  better  form  of  inhalation  in  mild  cases  is  that 
of  the  vapour  of  chloride  of  ammonium  as  generated  in  one 
of  the  varieties  of  the  apparatus  known  by  the  several 
names  of  Kerr,  of  Burroughs,  or  of  Felton.  This  remedy, 
which  is  very  serviceable  in  effecting  resolution  of  con- 
gestion and  in  giving  relief  to  catarrh,  does  not  make 
the  membrane  more,  but  rather  less  sensitive  to  the 
changes  of  open-air  temperature.  It  is,  in  any  case, 
a  perfectly  innocuous  process,  and  may  therefore  be  safely 
recommended.  The  vapour  in  either  case  may  be  made 
agreeably    stimulating   by   addition    of  essential    oils    (of 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  283 

which  that  of  the  Pinus  Sylvestris  is  perhaps  the  most 
generally  useful),  so  prepared  as  to  be  held  in  suspension 
in  the  water.  It  is  difficult  to  prescribe  internal  remedies 
adapted  with  safety  to  all  purposes,  but  there  can  be  no 
harm  in  the  use  of  mild  expectorants  as  squills  and 
ipecacuanha  in  the  form  of  mixtures,  lozenges,  or  pills.  It 
will  be  always  as  well  that  the  singer  should  be  assured  by  a 
medical  examination  with  the  laryngoscope  that  his  larnyx 
is  free  from  inflammation,  so  as  to  relieve  his  mind  and 
the  more  certainly  to  direct  his  recovery ;  but  there  is  no 
reason  why  any  one  subject  to  these  slight  attacks,  as  many 
are,  of  loss  of  voice,  should  not  be  properly  instructed  to 
Xx^dX  themselves,  for  it  is  above  all  important  that  treat- 
ment should  be  adopted  at  the  outset. 

It  is  often  only  the  patient  himself  who,  searching 
carefully  into  reasons,  can  discover  what  it  is  in  his  daily 
life  or  habits  that  brings  about  these  attacks,  and  so  learn 
how  to  avoid  them.  Hints  have  been  given  on  this  head 
in  the  chapter  entitled  "  The  Daily  Life  of  the  Voice-User." 

We  have  seen  some  prescriptions  of  small  doses  of 
laudanum  for  the  treatment  of  failures  of  voice,  and  we 
feel  bound  to  say  a  word  against  their  adoption  unless  in 
really  exceptional  circumstances ;  for  though  doubtless 
they  give  relief,  they  also  generate  a  desire  for  a  stimulant 
far  more  dangerous  and  insidious  than  alcohol ;  and  the 
more  so  as  w^e  have  known  several  cases  in  which  singers 
have  continued  for  many  weeks  or  months  the  practice 
commenced  under  medical  advice,  of  what  is  in  point  of 
fact  opium  eating,  quite  unconscious  of  the  nature  or 
danger  thereof. 

We  make  no  apology  for  not  following  the  practice  of 
many  authors  who  have  of  late,  in  attempted  popular 
treatises  on  the  throat  and  voice,  written  of  croup,  diph- 


284  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

theria,  consumption  in  lungs  and  throat,  cleft  palate,  hare- 
lip, &c. — subjects  in  our  estimation  on  which  it  is  not 
only  unnecessary,  but  undesirable  and  harmful  to  dilate  to 
the  public.  But  there  is  one  other  class  of  ailments 
affecting  the  singer  on  which  some  few  words  may  be 
acceptable — we  refer  to  those  affecting  the  nostrils. 

Of  these  the  common  head  cold  is  both  the  most  frequent 
and  the  most  annoying.  It  almost  beggars  description,  for 
no  list  of  its  symptoms  could  be  given  that  would  be 
considered  complete  by  the  sufferer,  and  we  should  be 
probably  thought  unsympathetic  if  we  expressed  our  view 
that  they  are  all  rather  annoying  than  serious ;  nor  would 
such  a  statement  be  by  any  means  true,  for  a  neglected 
cold  or  a  series  of  colds  may  lead  to  a  condition  giving 
rise  to  vocal  defects  among  the  most  difficult  of  cure. 
Constant  attacks  of  cold  in  the  head,  coryza  as  it  is  called, 
with  its  prominent  symptoms  of  increased  flow  of  nasal 
secretion,  may  lead  to  chronic  catarrhal  changes  impairing 
greatly  the  resonant  quality  of  the  voice.  If  unchecked 
this  catarrh  may  proceed  to  inspissation  and  retention  of 
the  secretion,  giving  rise  to  offensive  breath,  and  to  greatly 
disordered  digestion  and  health  ;  or  it  may  even  go  the 
length  of  superficial  ulcerations  of  the  coverings  of  the 
nostrils.  Although,  therefore,  it  is  often  the  fashion  to 
ridicule  treatment  of  a  cold  in  the  head,  it  is  very  desirable 
that  the  singer  and  voice-user  should  not  neglect  first  to 
check  a  head  cold  at  the  outset,  and  secondly  to  do  all  in 
his  power  to  arrest  the  tendency. 

There  is  a  prevalent  idea  that  a  common  head  cold  is 
incurable;  that  is  by  no  means  true,  but  it  is  equally  a 
fact  that  there  is  probably  no  remedy  of  universal  applica- 
tion for  the  sudden  arrest  of  colds.  Careful  attention  to 
the  various  methods  of  elimination  already  dwelt  on  will 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  285 

diminish  the  tendency,  but  when  an  acute  attack  occurs 
individual  experience  can  alone  determine  the  appropriate 
remedy.  One  person  will  be  cured  by  taking  a  Turkish 
bath,  which  acts  on  the  skin,  another  by  a  small  dose  of 
opium  or  belladonna,  a  third  by  camphor,  a  fourth  by 
inhalation  through  the  nostrils  of  anti-catarrhal  smelling- 
salts  (a  capital  remedy  when  there  is  constant  sneezing)  ; 
some  are  cured  by  taking  no  fluids  for  as  long  as  possible, 
a  treatment  introduced  by  Dr.  C.  J.  B.  WilHams. 

A  large  proportion  of  persons  unfortunately  resist  all 
attempts  to  arrest  a  head  cold  in  the  acute  stage  often 
because  the  treatment  is  not  commenced  sufliciently  early. 
For  the  cure  of  a  chronic  cold  and  the  eradication  or 
diminution  of  the  tendency  to  take  cold,  much  may  be 
done  by  hygienic  measures,  and  by  "  cures "  at  Aix-les- 
Bains,  Mont  Dore,  Cauterets,  Salzungen  in  Thuringen,  and 
other  foreign  mineral  water  establishments. 

It  may  generally  be  said  that  w^hile  dry  air  is  desirable, 
dust  is  to  be  avoided.  Also,  without  desiring  to  advocate 
pampering  and  coddling  of  a  system  subject  to  take  cold 
easily,  we  earnestly  advocate  those  liable  thereto,  especially 
if  singers,  to  guard  against  the  eff^ects  of  night  air,  and 
changes  of  temperature  incidental  from  exits  from 
theatres,  concert-rooms,  and  the  like,  by  means  of  covering 
the  mouth  and  nostrils,  and  by  sufficient  extra  covering. 
A  small  amount  of  Vaseline,  introduced  into  the  nostrils 
by  means  of  a  camel's  hair  brush,  acts  admirably  as  a  pro- 
tective of  a  sensitive  nasal  mucous  membrane  against  the 
injurious  effects  of  irritating  particles. 

One  last  ailment  peculiar  to  a  singer  or  speaker  is  that 
of  nervousness^  as  exercising  a  most  painful  effect  on  his 
career,  and  on  this  head  we  have  to  repeat  what  we  have 
said  often  times  before,  that  its  curability  depends  largely 


286  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

on  the  qualifications  of  the  sufferer   for   the   task   he   is 
attempting. 

It  is  seldom  that  the  competent  artist  is  afflicted  with 
nervousness  which  does  not  wear  off  as-  he  warms  to  his 
work.  On  the  other  hand,  the  audacity  of  ignorance  is 
generally  dispelled  on  appearance  before  a  public  audience.. 
We  once  knew  of  a  sailor  who  had  risen  to  the  rank  of 
admiral  who  was  always  sea-sick  at  commencement  of  a 
voyage.  Similarly  we  have  knowledge  of  a  few  rare  cases 
of  constitutional  nervousness  in  really  excellent  artists. 
Such  individuals  are  unfortunately  handicapped,  and  have 
evidently  mistaken  their  profession  so  far  as  its  pursuance 
with  comfort  is  concerned.  If  the  encouragement  of  suc- 
cess fail,  we  may  seek  for  an  actual  remedy,  and  we  may 
find  it  necessary  to  allow  a  glass  q{  Mariani  wine  to  be 
taken  just  before  singing.  But  this  or  any  other  kind  of 
stimulant  is  permissible  only  under  medical  advice  or 
quite  exceptionally,  since,  as  has  been  previously  explained, 
all  stimulants  are  apt  to  be  followed  by  reactionary  de- 
pression. Occasionally  teacher  and  doctor  must  be  pre- 
pared to  advise  abandonment  of  a  profession  for  which  the 
subject  is  from, such  a  cause  obviously  unfitted. 

In  concluding  this  chapter  we  venture  to  express  a  hope 
that  our  readers  will  not  be  disappointed  because  we  have 
not  given  any  very  definite  prescriptions  for  even  the 
commoner  of  the  voice-user's  ailments.  It  is  with  intention 
that  we  have  abstained  from  so  doing,  and  that  we  have 
rather  endeavoured  to  direct  attention  to  the  disorders  of 
general  health  or  fault  of  functional  exercise,  which  is 
probably  at  the  root  of  most  cases  of  vocal  disability ;  and 
the  moral  of  such  advice  should  clearly  be  to  discourage 
indulgence  in  patent  and  proprietary  voice  lozenges  and 
other  remedies  which,  when  not  harmful  or  negative  in  their 


AILMENTS  OF  THE  VOICE-USER.  287 

effects,  are  only  serviceable  to  allay  symptoms.  With  a 
view,  however,  of  meeting  the  wants  of  our  readers,  we  have 
given  sanction  to  the  advertisement  of  a  few  remedies  of 
general  use  for  most  of  the  conditions  indicated  in  the 
text.  We  particularly,  however,  repeat  one  caution,  that 
such  remedies  are  never  to  be  employed  as  substitutes  for 
medical  advice,  but  only  as  aids  to  treatment  after  cause  of 
ailment  has  been  discovered. 


288  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


ON  DEFECTS  OF  SPEECH,  STAMMERING,  AND 
STUTTERING. 

Any  book  which  claimed  to  be  a  complete  manual  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  the  human  voice  would  be  rightly 
judged  to  have  very  imperfectly  fulfilled  its  functions  were 
not  some  attention  given  to  the  subject  that  heads  this 
chapter,  and  if  on  only  those  grounds  we  should  feel  it 
incumbent  on  ourselves  to  offer  a  few  remarks. 

The  question  is  one  which  has  always  received  a  con- 
siderable share  of  attention,  unhappily  not  always  of  the 
most  worthy  kind,  nor  always  dictated  by  the  highest 
motives.  The  victims  of  defects  of  speech,  especially  those 
of  stuttering  and  stammering,  are  almost  always  of  a  shy, 
reserved  disposition,  whose  faiUng  has  but  seldom  received 
sympathy,  and  has  more  often  been  treated  with  absolute 
ridicule.  As  a  consequence  they  have  been  an  easy  prey 
to  the  charlatan  and  to  practitioners  of  specific  secret 
methods,  which,  like  many  other  secrets,  have  been  found 
worthless  when  revealed. 

In  these  last  few  years  this  important  social  infirmity  has 
been  treated  from  a  new  standpoint,  and  much  praise  is 
due  to  Mr.  Edgar  S.  Werner,  of  Albany,  N.Y.,  who  at 
the  commencement  of  the  year  1879  published  his  first 
number  of  The  Voice,  a  monthly  periodical,  which, 
although  intended  to  consider  all  "  the  various  phases  of 
vocal  sound,"  was  especially  established  as  "  a  tongue  to 
the  thousands   who    are    unmeasurably   deprived   of  one 


DEFECTS  OF  SPEECH.  289 

of  the  noblest  faculties  given  to  man."  The  editor,  him- 
self a  stutterer  in  boyhood,  began  and,  it  may  be  added, 
has  continued  his  work  with  enthusiasm.  He  has  published 
translations  in  his  journal  of  some  important  German 
treatises,  notably  of  Klencke  and  of  Gunther,  and  has 
collated  quite  a  number  of  separate  valuable  articles.  While 
all  systems  as  far  as  known  are  given,  secret  methods  are  in 
this  journal  opposed,  and  courageous  exposure  has  been 
made  of  all  those  who  practise  swindling  arts.  By  a 
"  happy  thought "  speech  sufferers  have  been  invited  to 
describe  their  own  cases  and  difficulties,  and  to  give  their 
own  experiences.  Though  naturally  these  communica- 
tions from  non- professional  contributors  have  not  been  of 
by  any  means  equal  merit,  and  to  the  scientific  pharisee 
might  be  thought  unworthy  of  attention  on  account  of 
defect  in  technical  accuracy,  the  flood  of  light  that  has 
been  let  in  on  the  question  by  means  of  this  scheme 
cannot  be  exaggerated,  and  no  words  in  praise  of  the 
undertaking  can  in  our  opinion  be  too  flattering  as  ex- 
pressive of  high  approval  and  congratulation. 

That  there  is  need  of  sound  and  accurate  information  as 
to  the  causes  and  means  of  cure  of  defects  of  utterance 
may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  Hunt — one  of  the  first 
writers  of  a  scientific  and  systematic  treatise  on  stammering 
— reckoned  in  1856  that  the  proportion  of  cases  of  stam- 
mering and  stuttering  to  the  population  of  Great  Britain 
was  3  per  1000.  Zug,  in  the  first  number  of  The  Voice, 
computed  from  statistics  of  the  last  official  census  in  1870 
that  half  per  cent. —  that  is,  5  per  1000 — of  the  population  of 
the  United  States  suffer  from  the  severer  forms  of  defective 
articulation.  In  other  words,  taking  the  population  of  the 
United  States  to  be  40^000,000  there  are  200,000  stutterers, 
a  number  almost  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  blind, 

u 


290  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

deaf  and  dumb,  and  insane,  which  in  that  return  numbered 
altogether  but  73,957. 

We  ourselves  do  not  expect  to  add  anything  very  new 
as  to  causation,  far  less  to  advocate  any  original  and 
infallible  method  of  cure,  but  from  our  two-fold  aspect  of 
doctor  and  trainer  to  review  what  has  been  done  by  others 
and  to  give  our  opinion  as  the  result  of  experience  on 
the  correctness  of  the  views  of  various  so-called  authorities, 
and  as  a  consequence  to  indicate  what  is  in  our  mind  the 
right  point  of  view  as  to  cause,  and  that  of  direction  in 
treatment. 

Acting  on  the  same  principle  that  has  guided  us  through- 
out this  manual,  we  think  it  useless  to  detail,  simply  for 
the  sake  of  extending  our  pages,  or  as  anecdotal  curiosities, 
all  the  many  ideas  and  methods  which  have  from  time  to 
time  been  promulgated  with  regard  to  the  subject  of  our 
present  consideration.  Indeed  we  expressly  avoid  doing  so 
because  such  a  plan  only  confuses  the  reader,  and  our  aim 
is  not  to  further  confound  a  subject  already  full  of  mis- 
apprehension, but  to  clear  it  of  all  needless  difficulties,  and 
so  render  it  more  intelligible. 

It  is  hardly  within  our  province  to  discuss  elementary 
questions  as  to  the  character  of  speech,  and  of  its  division 
into  vowels  and  consonants,  and  it  is  sufficient  here  to 
remind  our  readers  that  while  the  vowels  are  formed  by 
sounds  which,  coming  primarily  from  the  larynx,  are 
modified  by  variations  in  the  size  of  the  mouth  cavity  and 
of  its  opening,  consonants  depend  on  interruption  of  the 
currents  of  air  in  the  mouth  or  passages  above  the  larynx. 
They  can,  in  fact,  only  be  made  effective  by  junction  with 
a  vowel.  Thus  k\sk  and  ^,  r  is  ^  and  r,  ^  is  d  and  e,  n  is 
e  and  n^  &c.  Vowels  have  a  varying  musical  pitch,  but  can 
be  sounded  mutely,  that  is,  without  an  appreciable  voice- 


DEFECTS  OF  SPEECH.  291 

sound  or  in  a  whisper,  in  diminished  but  still  in  varying 
musical  quality;  while  consonants  are  characterised  by  a 
considerable  difference  in  the  time  that  may  be  occupied 
in  their  prolongation  of  delivery ;  thus  some,  ^,  /,  and  d^ 
must  be  uttered  quickly,  and  are  called  explosive ;  others, 
as  m^  n,  /,  and  r,  can  be  prolonged  almost  indefinitely. 
The  former  are  mute,  without  vowel  combination  ;  the 
latter  have  a  certain  musical  value  in  accordance  with  their 
inherent  vowel  quality.  In  the  first  case  the  vowel  sound 
follows  the  consonant ;  in  the  second  it  precedes  it.  There 
are  further  divisions  in  the  character  of  consonants  accord- 
ing to  the  point  of  interruption,  as  labial,  p,  when  the 
point  is  at  the  lips  involving  pressure ;  dental,  /,  produced 
by  presence  of  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  teeth ;  and 
guttural  as  k,  in  which  the  back  of  the  tongue  is  most 
actively  employed.  Still,  again,  some  consonants  derive 
their  character  from  a  variation  in  their  resonance. 

Lastly,  there  are  the  aspirates,  of  which  h  is  the  principal, 
and  they  are  produced  by  an  out-breathing,  formed  in  the 
larynx  which  allows  some  air  to  escape,  prior  to  actual 
vocalisation. 

It  has  now  been  so  satisfactorily  demonstrated  by  various 
physiologists  and  philologists,  Kemplen,  Willis,  Helmholtz, 
Ellis,  Melville  Bell,  and  others,  that  each  letter  and  each 
combination  of  letters  has  a  definite  mode  of  origin  and  a 
definite  mode  of  enunciation,  that  it  has  come  to  pass  that 
persons  born  deaf,  who  have  never  heard,  and  never  can 
hear  sound,  are  capable  of  being  taught  the  gift  of  speech, 
and  of  communicating  their  ideas  in  articulate,  though 
naturally  in  unmodulated  and  monotonous,  voice.  This 
provided  always — and  it  is  very  exceptionally  otherwise — 
that  the  vocal  organs  are  perfectly  developed.  More 
wonderful  than  this,  the  eye  has  been  educated  to  take  the 

u  2 


292  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

place  of  the  ear,  and  the  deaf  person  Hterally  reads  by- 
visual  observation  the  words  as  formed  at  the  hps  by 
the  person  with  whom  he  interchanges  conversation. 
This  fact  that  speech  can  be  correctly  taught  to  those 
born  without  the  special  sense  associated  by  nature  with  it, 
has  been  a  great  encouragement  to  the  speech  sufferer,  and 
has  led  more  than  anything  to  correct  training  of  the 
organ  and  of  the  nervous  influences  of  its  direction.  It 
has  also  been  very  instrumental  in  drawing  away  attention 
from,  and  belief  in,  mechanical  and  empirical  remedies. 
Lastly,  it  has  been  of  great  use  in  gaining  consideration 
from  a  new  point  of  view  of  the  importance  of  correct 
articulation  for  the  more  perfect  conveyance  of  all  speech 
and  song  even  to  those  not  afllicted  with  deafness. 

The  credit  of  this  great  discovery  of  making  the  dumb 
to  speak,  and  the  deaf  to  hear  with  the  eye,  must  be  given 
to  Samuel  Heinicke,  of  Germany,  where  this  method  of 
education  has  arrived  at  great  perfection.  This  country  is 
gieatly  indebted  to  Mr.  Van  Praagh,  by  whom  the  system 
was  first  introduced  into  England,  and  who  was  the  first 
principal  of  the  first  school  for  the  oral  instruction  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb. 

There  are  very  many  defects  of  speech  to  which  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  more  than  allude  here,  such  as  over- 
hurry  in  delivery  to  the  destruction  of  sense,  the  clipping 
of  words,  the  omission  of  vowels,  and  the  habit  of  making 
all  double  vowels  to  sound  as  diphthongs.  These  and 
many  others  are  matters  of  individual  or  provincial  faults 
of  education  or  pronunciation,  or  they  may  arise  from 
habits  of  aflTectation ;  or,  again,  may  be  the  result  of  mis- 
conception of  the  laws  which  convey  sound.  Each  and  all 
require  separate  instruction  for  their  cure  when  detected 
by  the  accurate  ear  of  the  voice-trainer.     It  is  not  too 


STAMMERING  AND  STUTTERING,  293 

much  to  say  that  there  is  never  a  pupil  who  comes  to  a 
master  who  has  not  one  or  other  such  fault.  But  too 
often  unfortunately  it  is  never  eradicated,  if,  indeed,  it  is 
ever  detected. 

There  are  many  other  defects  of  speech  which  are  due 
to  defective  taste.  The  singer  or  speaker  does  not  ap- 
preciate in  his  mind  the  special  colour  to  be  given  to  his 
voice,  the  difference  between  the  delivery  of  a  love  passage 
or  of  an  invective.  Such  faults  may  be  explained  by  the 
physiologist  as  due  to  the  want  of  a  certain  mental  quality 
in  the  subject  of  observation,  but  are  only  to  be  cured  by 
the  trainer :  where  glaringly  obvious  and  obstinate  the 
pupil  will  require  to  be  told  plainly  that  however  hard  he 
may  work  at  the  mere  mechanical  portion  of  his  art,  he 
lacks  a  quality  which  it  is  as  impossible  for  the  singing  or 
elocutionary  professor  to  supply,  as  it  would  be  to  instil 
the  gift  of  appreciation  of  the  finer  subtleties  of  colour 
and  of  light  and  shade  to  the  art  student  not  naturally 
endowed  therewith. 

-  Let  us  now  proceed  to  consideration  of  the  two  most 
serious  of  speech  defects,  stammering  and  stuttering. 
There  is  much  confusion  of  ideas  as  to  these  terms.  By 
many  they  are  thought  to  be  interchangeable  and  to  mean 
one  and  the  same  thing.  In  point  of  fact  they  define  two 
separate  and  distinct  impediments — shortly : — 

Stammering  Stuttering, 

may  be  said  to  imply  fault  Fault  of  co-ordination  be- 
of  articulation  of  vocalised  tween  articulation  and  vocal- 
sound,  isation. 

Thus,  a  stammerer  can  vocalise  a  sound  in  his 
larynx,    but  is  unable   so  to  regulate    his  tongue,  palate, 


294  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

and  lip-opening  as  to  form  that  sound  into  a  dis- 
tinct vowel,  and  the  hearer  cannot  consequently  dis- 
tinguish whether  the  vocal  sound  which  is  uttered,  and 
may  be  indefinitely  repeated,  is  meant  for  ah,  ai,  ee^  oh, 
or  00, 

A  stutterer.,  on  the  other  hand,  places  his  articulating 
organs  in  the  right  position  for  enunciation  of  some 
particular  consonant,  but  is  unable  to  combine  with  it  the 
vocal  sound  giving  it  its  vowel  character,  so  that,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  consonant  b  for  example,  the  hearer  cannot 
distinguish  whether  the  consonant  which  is  articulated,  and 
may  be  indefinitely  repeated,  is  intended  to  commence  a 
word  as  bah^  bat,  bee,  boh,  or  boo. 

We  cannot  wholly  agree  with  Klencke  that  "  the  causes 
of  stuttering  lie  in  the  auxiliary  organs  of  speech — in  the 
organs  of  respiration — without  the  articulating  organs 
being  primarily  affected,"  and  he  only  half  saves  his  de- 
finition by  that  word  "  primarily  "  which  we  have  italicised. 
Again,  while  we  agree  with  him  that  the  causes  of  stam- 
mering lie  in  the  organs  between  the  larynx  and  lips — in 
the  articulating  organs — we  cannot  think  that  any  satis- 
factory distinction  can  be  made  on  the  basis  of  articulation 
alone,  for  that  is  faulty  in  both  ;  or  taking  the  matter 
in  another  way,  and  in  Klencke's  own  words,  we  do  not 
consider  "  stuttering  simply  as  a  defect  of  vocalisation, 
and  stammering  a  defect  of  articulation."  In  another 
portion  of  his  work,  however,  he  correctly  states  the  case 
when  he  says,  "stuttering  is  a  lack  of  harmony  between 
vocalisation  and  articulation,  a  relative  predominance 
of  the  latter  over  the  former."  The  consonant  is  in 
point  of  fact,  as  stated  in  our  definition,  continually 
repeated  to  impediment  of  vocalisation  of  its  associated 
vowel.     In  opposition  one    might    correctly  say,    "stam- 


STAMMERING  AND  STUTTERING.  295 

mering  is  a  lack  of  harmony  between  vocalisation  and 
articulation,  a  relative  predominance  of  the  former  over 
the  latter." 

We  do  not  wish  it  to  be  understood  that  because  we 
insist  on  the  importance  of  fault  of  articulation  as  the 
cause  of  stammering  and  stuttering  that  we  therefore 
ignore  existence  of  a  number  of  other  defects  of  speech  in 
which  there  is  no  ac  tual  impediment  to  utterance,  but 
which  are  equally  due  to  imperfect  or  vicious  articula- 
tion. The  same  remarks  will  obtain  when  we  come  to 
speak  of  faulty  respiration  in  relation  to  stammering  and 
stuttering. 

Resuming,  and  in  continuance  of  our  comparative  dis- 
tinctions, it  may  be  stated  that — 

Stammering —  Stuttering — ■ 

1.  Has  relation  to  vowel  Is  associated  with  the  de- 
sound  or  combination  of  livery  of  consonants,  espe- 
vowel  sounds.  cially     the     explosive     and 

sibilants. 

2.  Involves  defect  in  de-  Is  experienced  in  articula- 
livery  of  individual  letters,  tion  of  words  or  syllables, 
and  the  fault  is  detected  on  but  each  separate  letter  of 
attempt  to  repeat  the  separ-  the  alphabet  can  be  correctly 
ate  letters  of  the  alphabet.  enunciated. 

3.  Is  more  frequently  due  Is  generally  due  rather  to 
to  defective  physical  forma-  spasmodic  muscular  con- 
tion  in  the  pharynx  and  tractions,  and  seldom  to 
fauces,  palate,  or  tongue,  or  objective  defects  of  the 
to  enlarged  tonsils,  varying  organs  of  speech  and  articu- 
the  shape  of  the  articulating  lation. 

cavity. 


290 


VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 


Stammering. 
4.    Is    unassociated   with 
other  fauhy  muscular  move- 
ments. 


5.  Is  much  less  frequently 
due  to  want  of  nerve  con- 
trol, independently  of  voli- 
tion, as  proved  from  the 
foregoing  and  by  the  ab- 
sence of  engorgement  of  the 
vessels  of  the  face  and  neck. 


6.  Is  improved  in  the 
presence  of  a  teacher,  and  by 
care  and  effort  of  will  on 
the  part  of  the  subject. 


7.  Is  betrayed  in  singing, 
declamation,  and  measured 
talking  \{Klencke)^  to  this  we 
are    only    half    incHned    to 


agree]. 


8.  Is  equally    noticed    in 


Stuttering. 

Is  frequently  associated 
with  irregular  and  spasmodic 
movements  of  other  muscles 
of  co-ordination  of  the  face 
and  limbs. 

Is  accompanied  by  much 
engorgement  of  the  face  and 
neck,  indicating  a  temporary 
paralysis  of  the  nervous 
(vasomotor  or  sympathetic) 
control  of  the  circulatory 
system,  which  is  independent 
of  volition.  Columbat's  de- 
finition here  well  applies ; 
*'  dis-harmony  between  voli- 
tion and  organic  move- 
ment." 

Is  generally  rendered  much 
worse  by  observation,  and  by 
anything  that  makes  the 
subject  think  of  his  defect : 
thus,  hearing  another  person 
stutter  will  often  at  once 
induce  an  attack  of  stutter- 
ing in  one  who  previously 
was  speaking  evenly. 

Is  seldom  betrayed,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  may  be 
cured  in  rhythmical  delivery, 
as  in  low,  measured  declam- 
ation and  singing. 

Is    absent    in    whispering 


STAMMERING  AND  STUTTERING.  297 

Stammering,  Stuttering. 

all    variations    of  the  vocal     low  tones,   monotones,  and 
scale.  often  in  continuous  reading, 

and  becomes  apparent  only 
on  use  of  loud  voice,  or  in 
conversational  speech. 

Some  authors,  notably  Klencke,  have  endeavoured  to 
make  a  distinction  between  stammering  and  stuttering  in 
relation  to  respiration. 

We  are  of  opinion  that  it  is  just  here  that  the  two  are 
allied,  and  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  of  both  kinds  a 

FAULT     IN     RESPIRATIOxNT    IS    AT    THE     ROOT     OF     ALL     THE 

MISCHIEF.  Let  it  be  granted  that  the  fault  of  co-ordina- 
tion in  the  stutterer  is  far  more  the  result  of  a  functional 
disorder  of  the  brain  than  in  the  stammerer,  or  that  the 
fault  is  of  a  different  character  ;  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
by  both  preceptor  and  pupil  that  the  fault  is  (except  in 
rare  cases  of  brain  disease  occurring  in  adult  life)  only 
functional,  not  organic,  a  grand  distinction  to  the 
physician,  a  most  encouraging  one  to  the  patient.  We 
are  not  concerned  now  with  questions  of  enlarged  tonsils, 
elongated  uvula,  cleft  palate,  hare-lip,  malposition  of  the 
teeth,  &c.,  further  than  to  advise  that  in  every  case  of 
stammering  or  of  stuttering  the  voice-trainer  should  have 
his  pupil  examined  by  a  competent  surgeon,  to  see  that 
such  removable  defects  to  sound  modification  do  not 
exist. 

In  considering  other  causes  of  stammering  and  stutter- 
ing, attention  must  be  given  to  the  constitutional  disposi- 
tion and  health.  Doubtless  stammerers  are  more  excitable 
and  vivacious,  stutterers  more  shy  and  reserved,  than  the 
average,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is  a  very 


298  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

similar  constitutional  weakness  of  a  scrofulous  or  strumous 
character  in  each. 

A  scrofulous  constitution  is  one  which  tends  to  chronic 
thickening,  with  but  slight  inflammation  of  the  oral  and 
nasal  breathing  passages,  and  this  leads  to  weak  respiration, 
defective  oxygenation,  and  many  other  effects  of  enfeebled 
circulation.  Discharges  of  the  ear,  enlarged  tonsils,  &c., 
often  first  arise  in  children  of  such  a  tendency  as  sequels 
of  severe  illnesses,  especially  fevers. 

Stuttering  not  uncommonly  takes  its  birth  in  such  like 
manner.  Fright,  imitation,  and  other  causes  acting  di- 
rectly on  the  nervous  system,  are  among  the  frequently 
ascribed  factors  of  stuttering,  and  quick  response  to  such 
influences  is  in  itself  an  evidence  of  constitutional  delicacy. 
The  highly  sensitive  and  feeble  nervous  state  of  all  stut- 
terers will  be  generally  recognised  ;  there  are  some  who 
stutter  in  thought  as  well  as  in  expression,  others  who 
stammer  in  movement  and  action. 

We  have  recently  heard  it  said  by  a  very  high  authority, 
that  the  terms  stammering  and  stuttering  imply  the  same 
thing  ;  and  the  statement  was  illustrated  by  the  simile  of  a 
horse,  who  may  be  said  to  stammer  or  to  stutter  when  he 
stumbles-  The  idea  of  comparison  of  the  faulty  actions 
of  motion  of  the  horse  with  those  of  a  human  being  with 
defective  speech  utterance,  is  not  inapt;  only  we  would 
insist  that  the  same  difference  exists  in  both  cases.  When 
a  quadruped  stumbles^  it  stammers  ;  when  itjids,  it  stutters. 
In  the  one  it  repeats  unnecessarily  or  performs  blunderingly 
a  normal  act ;  in  the  other  there  is  an  impediment  to, 
or  hesitation  in  performance  of,  the  necessary  and  normal 
act. 

Prosser  James  has  dilated  {Lancet^  Nov.  15,  1879)  on 
"a    stammering  of  the  vocal  cords"  as  "a  hitherto  un- 


STAMMERING  AND  STUTTERING.  299 

described   laryngeal    affection,  in   which    syllabHzation    is 
complete,  phonation  defective." 

In  point  of  fact,  the  condition  has  been  long  understood 
and  very  well  described  ;  it  depends  simply  on  fault  of 
respiration,  the  act  having  been  performed  incorrectly  in 
relation  to  economy  in  expiration,  by  which  either  the 
breath  has  been  wasted  before  singing,  or  vocalisation  has 
been  continued  after  the  lung  has  been  emptied  of  its  com- 
plement of  air.  Kingsley  alludes  to  it  in  his  '  Irrationale 
of  Speech  '  as  an  advanced  stage  of  ordinary  stuttering. 

There  is  one  point  in  relation  to  hesitation  in  utterance 
which  must  not  be  overlooked  by  the  physician,  and  it  is 
this.  If  it  occurs  in  children,  it  is  generally  due  to  some 
cause  which  surgeon  and  teacher  in  combination  or 
separately  can  cure  ;  but  when  it  is  noticed  in  an  adult 
who  has  previously  spoken  fluently  and  clearly,  there  is 
reason  for  anxiety,  for  such  a  condition  may  be,  and 
generally  is,  premonitory  of  brain  disease. 

In  indicating — for  we  can  do  no  more — the  line  of 
treatment  for  the  stammerer  and  stutterer,  it  may  be 
said  that  remedial  measures  can  be  divided  into  three 
classes:    i.  Mechanical.     2.  Surgical.     3.  Educational. 

Mechanical  treatment,  implying  insertion  of  any  foreign 
body  whatever  into  the  mouth,  is  only  mentioned  with  the 
utmost  brevity,  that  opportunity  may  be  taken  to  condemn 
the  practice  in  terms  of  the  greatest  possible  severity. 
The  only  mechanical  means  which  are  justifiable  in  these 
cases  are  those  to  be  employed  by  a  dentist  to  correct 
imperfect  narrowing  of  the  jaw,  by  defective  growth  of  the 
teeth,  or,  as  is  necessary  in  very  rare  cases,  by  insertion  of 
a  plate  when  there  is  a  cleft  or  an  unduly  high  and  narrow 
arch  of  the  palate. 

Surgical  measures,  which  imply  division  with  the  knife 


300  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

of  muscles  spasmodically  contracted,  or  removal  of  pieces 
of  the  tongue  abnormally  enlarged  during  the  act  of  speech, 
also  by  spasm  of  its  muscular  tissues  and  congestion  of  its 
blood  supply,  are  likewise  only  mentioned  to  be  condemned 
with  uncompromising  severity.  It  is  indeed  well  nigh  incon- 
ceivable that  positively  in  the  present  century  operations  so 
barbarous,  because  founded  on  such  ignorant  hypothesis, 
could  have  been  suggested,  much  more  performed,  by  sur- 
geons who  have  achieved  high  distinction  in  other  branches 
of  their  art.  Remembering  the  fable  of  the  dead  lion,  we  for- 
bear, in  honour  to  their  memory,  to  even  mention  names. 

Where  there  is  a  cleft  of  the  palate,  a  hare-lip,  an 
enlarged  tonsil,  an  overgrowth  of  tissue  in  the  naso- 
pharyngeal passages,  a  polypus  in  the  nostrils,  a  cyst 
under  the  tongue,  in  fact,  any  actual  disease  or  deformity 
interfering  with  the  normal  calibre  of  the  articulating 
cavities,  it  is  of  course,  not  only  reasonable,  but  absolutely 
necessary,  that  surgical  measures  should  be  employed, 
with  promptitude  and  thoroughness.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
suppose  that  any  such  treatment  can  do  harm.  If  delayed 
it  may  not  be  successful  in  entire  removal  of  the  trouble  ; 
but  this  much  may  be  said  for  certain,  that  want  of 
success  is  not  necessarily  the  fault  of  the  operation,  or  a 
proof  that  it  was  wrong  to  have  performed  it.  Where 
success  does  not  follow  surgical  measure  of  the  character 
above  mentioned,  rightly  indicated  and  properly  per- 
formed, it  is  not  on  account  of,  but  in  spite  of,  that 
operation.  This  question  of  operations  on  the  throat  has 
been  already  considered  in  the  previous  chapter.  Consti- 
tutional treatment  of  any  faulty  health  disposition,  and 
proper  hygiene  as  to  bathing,  clothing,  exercise,  diet,  &c., 
will  of  course  be  the  work  of  the  medical  adviser,  and 
must  by  no  means  be  overlooked. 


STAMMERING  AND  STUTTERING.  301 

Lastly,  there  is  the  educational  remedy ;  this  may 
be  further  subdivided  into  that  of  the  teacher  and  that 
of  the  voice  sufferer  himself.  With  regard  to  education, 
very  much  can  be  done  by  both  mental  and  physical 
training;  the  teacher  can  bring  to  bear  the  influence  of 
his  mind,  and  having  knowledge  of  the  cause  of  speech 
impediments,  can  explain  them  ;  having  sympathy,  can 
encourage  the  desponding ;  having  power,  can  control 
the  weaker  will ;  and  having  discrimination,  can  not  only 
detect  the  cause,  but  can  watch  arid  direct  the  cure. 

A  teacher  to  be  successful  must  therefore  not  only  be 
learned  and  experienced,  he  must  be  strong,  patient,  and 
persevering.  These  last  qualities  he  must  instil  even  to 
a  larger  measure  into  his  pupil,  for  recognising  all  speech 
defects  as  faulty  habits  of  mind  and  muscle,  of  education 
or  imitation,  at  least  equal  effort  must  be  made  to  eradi- 
cate this  most  painful  and  detrimental  of  vicious  habits  as 
v/ould  be  employed  for  correction  of  any  bad  habit  of 
action  or  manner  reflecting  more  obviously,  perhaps,  but 
in  point  of  fact  not  more  practically,  on  the  social  status 
of  the  subject.  The  sufferer  must  never  allow  himself  to 
forget  his  rules  for  cure ;  he  must,  as  taught  by  Hunt  and 
stated  by  Kingsley,  "  always  speak  consciously  as  others 
(not  stammerers)  speak  unconsciously." 

Beyond  this  mental  education,  come  next  gymnastic 
exercises — these  are  of  several  kinds :  first  and  foremost, 
instruction  in  regular  and  efficient  filling  of  the  lungs 
through  the  natural  breath  passages — the  nostrils — and 
then,  above  all,  economy  in  the  emptying  thereof,  or  rather, 
perhaos,  to  put  it  more  plainly,  control  of  emission  of  the 
breath  from  the  lungs  during  speech  in  such  a  way  as  to 
ensure  that  none  is  expired  before  vocaUsation. 

Reducing  it  to  a  diagram  by  which  the  arrow^  represents 


30  2  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

an  out-breath,  the  vowel  ah,  for  example,  and  all  others 
in  turn,  should  be  sounded  so  as  to  commence  with  the 
expiration,  thus : 

ah  ^ ^  not  at  the  end 

thus — 

m> >  ah. 

After  this  principle  has  been  thoroughly  inculcated  and 
practised,  not  only  for  one  vowel  but  for  all,  and  also  for 
combinations  of  vowels,  the  pupil  may  be  instructed  to  rest 
on  this  vowel,  and  at  a  given  sharp  signal,  as  of  a  clap  of 
the  instructor's  hands,  to  join  the  consonant.  In  the  case 
of  stuttering  he  may  be  told  to  place  his  lips  in  position 
for  the  commencing  consonant,  and  at  the  same  signal  to 
give  it  its  proper  vocal  sound. 

Another  useful  aid  to  the  cure  of  speech  impediments 
may  be  found  in  the  pupil  reading  or  reciting  to  the 
accompaniment  of  his  teacher  who  reads  or  recites  the 
same  words,  and  thereby  gives  him  a  "lead"  over  the  vocal 
hedges  and  hurdles  which  obstruct  his  course. 

Combined  with  these,  respiratory  gymnastics,  as  more 
completely  detailed  elsewhere  in  this  essay,  and  the  vocal 
exercises  here  shortly  indicated,  general  use  of  chest  ex- 
panders, dumb-bells,  &c.,  should  be  enforced  and  regulated 
in  moderation  and  proportion  to  the  age  and  strength  of 
the  subject.  Finally,  the  pupil  may  be  taught  the  value 
of  employing  rhythmical  movements  of  hands  or  feet 
synchronously  with  those  of  the  organs  of  breathing  and 
speech,  so  as  to  regulate  these  last  actions  by  co-ordination 
with  the  others. 

The  foregoing  are  only  hints  of  the  line  to  be  taken 
for  rational  treatment  of  stammering,  and  might  be  largely 
extended  if  w^e  were  writing  a  treatise  on  the  subject,  but 
not  of  much  good  purpose  w^ould  that  be,  for  there  exist 


STAMMERING  AND  STUTTERING.  303 

already  a  sufficiency  of  admirable  works  on  the  causes  and 
treatment  of  these  defects,  embracing  all  that  can  be  taught 
by  book.  Of  these  modern  works  those  of  the  younger 
and  elder  Hunt  and  of  Kingsley,  published  in  this  country ; 
of  Klencke,  Gunther,  and  Chervin,  translated  and  published 
in  The  Voice.,  are  the  most  highly  to  be  recommended. 
Much  valuable  information  is  also  to  be  found  in  various 
treatises  on  elocution  as  to  all  defects  of  speech,  and  we 
have  recently  read  an  able  synopsis  of  all  that  is  known 
on  the  causation,  pathology,  and  treatment  of  stammering, 
with  much  original  matter,  by  Mr.  C.  C.  Caleb,  a  medical 
student,  in  the  junior  medical  periodical.  The  Shcdenfs 
journal,  vol.  xi.,  Nos.  289,  290,  and  291. 

One  word  in  conclusion.  It  will  be  observed  that  we  have 
advocated  no  system.  Why  ?  Because  there  is  none  that  is 
honestly  applicable  to  all  cases.  The  varieties  and  causes 
of  defects  of  speech  are  so  numerous  that  to  pretend  to 
apply  one  empirical  remedy  to  all  is  as  preposterous  as  are 
the  claims  of  the  many  largely  advertised  quack  nostrums ; 
and  their  adoption  in  both  cases  does  harm,  not  necessarily 
because  of  any  inherent  noxious  principle,  but  because  no 
attempt  is  made  to  discover  the  real  cause  of  the  malady 
which,  uncured,  is  therefore  allowed  to  proceed  to  more 
chronic  aggravation. 

The  safest,  cheapest,  quickest,  and  indeed  only  way  for  all 
these  cases  to  be  cured  is  that  they  should  be  treated  on 
their  individual  differences  by  persons  skilled  to  detect 
their  nature  and  quahfied  to  correct  them.  Those  who 
cry  loudest  their  own  wares  are  not  by  any  means  to  be  the 
most  depended  upon,  but  unfortunately  there  always  have 
been,  and  always  will  be,  but  too  many  dupes  who  will 
answer  to  their  call.  Hence  our  brief  but  earnest  word  of 
warning. 


C   304  ) 


APPENDIX  I. 


ON  PHOTOGRAPHY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS 
IN  THE  ACT  OF  SINGING. 

Laryngeal  photography  is  by  no  means  of  recent  date. 
As  far  back  as  i860  attempts  were  made  by  Czermak,  and 
his  results  laid  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Vienna. 
A  description  of  his  apparatus  in  Dr.  Stein's  book  on 
"Light"  shows  that  he  thoroughly  understood  the 
difficulties  he  had  to  encounter ;  and,  considering  that  the 
advantage  of  gelatine  plates  did  not  exist  at  that  time,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  his  results  were  very  good  indeed ; 
albeit  his  work  bears  evidence  of  material  aid  at  the  hands 
of  the  retoucheur. 

Since  then  many  similar  experiments  have  been  made  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  and  Mr.  Behnke  succeeded 
twelve  years  ago  in  obtaining  a  photograph  of  his  larynx 
with  no  better  illumination  than  the  limelight.  Among 
the  more  recent  attempts  must  be  mentioned  those  of  Dr. 
French,  of  Boston,  whose  success  has  been  greater  than 
that  of  any  of  his  predecessors.  Nevertheless  all  these 
earlier  photographs  of  the  larynx  were  capable  of  great 
improvement,  while  photography  of  the  soft  palate  in  the 
act  of  singing  had  never  been  thought  of. 

Under  these  circumstances  we  determined  to  try  whether 
we  could  not,  at  least  partly,  substitute  photographs  for 
the  engravings  with  which  we  had  at  first  intended  to 
illustrate  this  book,  and  we  set  to  work  accordingly.     Mr. 


PHOTOGRAPHY  OF  THE  THROAT.  305 

Bolas,  the  editor  of  the  Photographic  JVews,  kindly  gave 
us  the  benefit  of  his  advice,  and  introduced  us  to  three 
gentlemen  it  is  impossible  not  here  to  mention,  because 
udthout  their  generous  help  and  their  inexhaustible 
resources,  we  could  never  have  overcome  the  difficulties 
which  continued  to  present  themselves,  and  we  desire  here 
publicly  to  acknowledge  our  deepest  obligation  to  them  all. 

Mr.  H.  T.  Wood,  the  accomplished  secretary  of  the 
Society  of  Arts,  placed  at  our  disposal  the  laboratory  of 
the  Society  combining  a  photographic  studio  with  dynamo- 
electric  machinery,  and  personally  assisted  us  in  many 
ways.  Mr.  James  Cadett,  an  inventor  and  amateur 
photographer  of  the  highest  scientific  attainments,  de- 
voted many  days  of  his  valuable  time  to  our  experi- 
ments, and  he  designed  the  apparatus  with  which  we 
eventually  succeeded.  We  are  further  indebted  to  Mr. 
J.  J.  Ackworth,  also  an  amateur  photographer,  who  vied 
with  Mr.  Cadett  in  bringing  our  undertaking  to  a 
successful  issue. 

We  first  used  two  large  round  flasks  filled  with  a  solu- 
tion of  alum  to  absorb  the  heat,  which  we  employed 
as  condensers  for  two  powerful  electric  lights  kindly  lent 
and  put  up  by  Sir  William  Siemens.  This  method  of 
direct  illumination  we  had  to  abandon  as  clumsy  and 
unmanageable,  and  we  then  used  the  apparatus  of  Mr. 
Cadett's  construction  consisting  of  (i)  an  electric  light  of 
about  10,000  candle-power,  (2)  a  water  chamber  through 
which  a  current  of  water  was  constantly  flowing  so  as  to 
absorb  as  much  as  possible  of  the  heat  rays,  (3)  a  condenser 
consisting  of  two  plano-convex  lenses,  and  (4)  a  mirror 
with  a  plane  surface  to  reflect  the  light. 

This  apparatus  underwent  many  slight  modifications 
and  alterations  as  the  result  of  our  joint  experience  and 

X 


3o6  VOICE,  SONG,  AND  SPEECH. 

suggestions  at  our  various  meetings,  but  the  foregoing 
is  a  sufficiently  complete  account  of  our  means  of 
illumination. 

The  actual  process  of  obtaining  a  photograph  is  shown 
in  our  frontispiece.  Mr.  Behnke  has  in  his  right  hand  the 
laryngeal  mirror,  and  he  sees  himself  in  a  small  looking- 
glass  attached  to  the  shutter  of  the  camera,  so  that  the 
image  is  in  an  exact  line  with  the  sensitive  plate.  This 
arrangement,  so  apparently  obvious  and  trivial,  constitutes 
a  most  important  improvement  in  the  method  hitherto 
employed  by  others.  The  operator  having  focussed  the 
view,  jointly  agreed  by  us  to  be  a  good  one,  the  sitter  is  seen 
to  have  just  given  the  signal,  by  dropping  the  upraised 
index  finger  of  his  left  hand,  for  the  shutter  to  be  raised. 
The  lenses  used  were  of  the  rapid  rectilinear  kind,  and  our 
exposures  averaged  about  quarter  of  a  second.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  our  results  would  have  been  better  had  the  ex- 
posures been  much  shorter ;  but  with  the  plates  at  our  dis- 
posal on  those  occasions,  shorter  exposures  were  impossible. 

The  frontispiece  is  made  from  the  original  negative  and 
is  absolutely  untouched.  Not  even  some  spots  on  the 
teeth  and  on  the  back  of  the  throat  caused  by  moisture 
have  been  interfered  with.  The  two  very  bright  marks  on 
the  spectacles  are  caused  by  the  reflection  of  the  light  upon 
the  edges  of  the  very  dark  goggles  Mr.  Behnke,  and 
indeed  others  of  us  also,  had  to  wear  to  protect  our  eyes 
from  the  glare  of  the  powerful  illumination.  All  the  photo- 
graphs of  the  larynx  in  the  production  of  various  tones 
which  are  inserted  at  page  178,  and  are  there  described, 
were  taken  the  same  size  as  the  little  picture  in  the  frontis- 
piece. They  were  then  considerably  enlarged  and  marked 
with  letters  of  reference ;  after  which  they  were  re-photo- 
graphed to  the  size  of  nature. 


PHOTOGRAPHY  OF  THE  THROAT.  307 

As  to  the  portraits  of  the  soft  palate  facing  page  215, 
they  were  a  comparatively  easy  matter,  since  they  are 
photographs  of  the  actual  condition  of  things  at  the  back 
of  the  throat,  which  any  one  could  see  in  the  circumstances 
indicated,  instead  of  being,  as  is  the  case  with  the  laryngeal 
pictures,  the  photographs  of  a  reflection. 

The  photographs  of  the  soft  palate  were,  like  those  of 
the  larynx,  enlarged,  and  lettered  for  reference,  after  which 
they  were  also  reduced  to  the  present  natural  size. 

All  the  enlargements,  as  well  as  the  reproduction  in 
collotype  (the  process  employed  for  the  illustrations  of  this 
volume),  have  been  made  under  the  immediate  superin- 
tendence of  Mr.  Payne  Jennings,  who  is  admittedly  facile 
princeps  in  this  branch  of  photographic  art. 


APPENDIX   II. 


Copy  of  Letter  from  Dr.  Wyllie  on  Approximation 
OF  the  Pocket  Ligaments  in  Tone  Production. 

I,  Melville  Street,  Edinburgh, 

October  27,  1883. 

Dear  Sir, — 

I  am  much  obliged  to  you  for  your  letter  of  the 
24th  instant,  directing  my  attention  to  a  mistake  that 
has  been  made  in  the  interpretation  by  some  writers  of 
my  views  regarding  the  action  of  the  ventricles  of 
Morgagni,  and  the  ventricular   bands,    or   "  false  cords." 

X  2 


3o8  APPENDIX  II. 


The  account  of  these  views  that  you  give  in  the  proof  sent 
me  of  your  work  now  in  the  press  is  perfectly  accurate. 

In  my  '  Observations  on  the  Physiology  of  the  Larynx,' 
I  showed  that  the  ventricles  with  their  ligaments  form  an 
important  valve,  but  I  said  nothing  of  their  relations  to 
voice,  with  which  I  believe  they  have  little  or  no  concern. 

I  remain,  dear  Sir, 

Yours  faithfully, 

John  Wyllie. 

To  Lennox  Browne,  Esq. 


INDEX. 


Ablutions,  influence  of,  on  daily  life  of  voice-user,  244 
Aids  to  voice,  by  food  or  stimulant,  254 

„  „       cautions  in  use  of,  283 

Air,  chemical  composition  of,  102 

„     in  lungs,  complementary,  47 

„         „  residual,  47 

„         „  supplemental,  47 

„         „  tidaj,  47 

„     motive  power  of  voice,  102,  186 
Alcohol  in  relation  to  voice  use,  260 
Amusements  in  relation  to  voice  use,  263 
Articulation,  importance  of,  222 
Arytenoid  cartilages,  57 
Attack,  195  * 

„      exercises  for,  196 
Auto-laryngoscopy,  149,  154,  i85 
Avery's  laryngoscope,  146 

B. 

Babington's  laryngoscope,  146 

Baritone  voices,  97 

Bass  „      97,  226 

Bennati  on  removal  of  enlarged  tonsils,  281 

Bernays,  Dr.  Albert,  on  tea  drinking  in  relation  to  voice  use,  258 

Beaumes'  laryngoscope,  146 

Biot  on  the  voice,  88 

Bozzini's  laryngoscope,  145 

Breathing,  abdominal,  49 

„         artificial  hindrances  to,  185 

„         clavicular,  collar-bone,  or  scapular,  49,  180 


3IO  INDEX. 


Breathing,  costal  or  lateral,  49 

„         criterion  of  correct,  184 

„         diaphragmatic,  49,  188 

„         difference  of,  between  men  and  women,  49 

„         Dr.  Paul  Niemeyer  on,  103 

„         injurious  influence  of  wrong  methods,  182 

„         in  relation  to  voice  cultivation,  179 

„         lessons  for  right  performance  of,  187 

„         midriff,  49 

„         mouth,  105 

„         nasal,  105 
Bronchial  passages  or  bronchi,  anatomy  of,  44 
Bronchitis  kettles,  282 
Buccal  cavity  or  mouth,  79 
Buffer  cartilages  of  larynx,  71 

C. 

Cartilages,  arytenoid,  position  or  pyramids,  57 

„         costal  (Plate  IV.),  40,  180 

„         cover,  epiglottis  or  lid,  55 

„         cricoid  or  ring,  53 

„         cuneiform  or  "prop,"  71,  75 

„  „  Elsberg  on,  76 

„  „  ,,  Madame  Seiler  on,  76 

„  „  „  Witkowskion,  76 

of  larynx,  53 

„         pyramid,  or  position,  or  arytenoid,  57 

„         ring  or  cricoid,  53 

„         of  Santorini  or  *'  buffer,"  71 

„         sesamoid,  76 

„         ?hield  or  thyroid,  53 

„         of  Wrisberg,  7 1 
Cases  illustrative  of  value  of  respiratory  gymnastics,  132 
Catching  cold,  on,  2  7 1 
Chest  or  thorax,  anatomy  of,  38 
„  ,,       muscles  of,  41 

Clergyman's  sore  throat,  274 

Clothing,  influence  of,  on  daily  life  of  voice-user,  248 
Coca-wine  as  a  vocal  restorative,  255,  286 
Cocoa  as  a  beverage  for  the  voice-user,  258 
Cofl"ee      „  „  „         „  „     259 

Cold  water  to  throat,  247 


INDEX.  311 


Columbat  on  stuttering,  296 
Common  head  cold,  284 
Contralto  voices,  95,  226 

„  „      similarity  of,  to  tenors,  95 

Corpulence  of  singers,  reasons  of,  271 
Coryza,  284 

Cosmetic  powders,  injurious  influence  on  health,  247 
Curwen  on  breathing,  106 

„       his  names  for  the  registers,  165 
Czermak's  advocacy  of  the  laryngoscope,  148 

„         experiments  on  closure  of  soft  palate,  82 


D. 

Defects  of  speech,  288 

Delaunay  on  variety  of  voices,  &c.,  97 

Despinez  on  the  voice,  88 

Diaphragm,  anatomy  of,  40 

Diet  of  the  voice-user,  252 

Diday  on  the  voice,  88 

Division  of  voices,  pliysical  causes  of,  94 

Drinking  in  relation  to  voice  use,  257 

Dutrochet's  experiments,  141 

E. 

Ear,  nlusical;  definition  and  training  of,  137,  138 

„    relations  of,  with  throat  in  voice  production,  135 
Echoes,  their  philosophy,  20 

„       instances  of,  in  various  cathedrals,  &c.,  21 

,,       Tyndall  on,  21 
Educational  treatment  of  speech  defects,  301 
Effervescing  drinks,  their  influence  on  the  voice,  259 
Ellis  on  compound  tones,  22 

„       distinctions  between  singing  and  speaking,  35 

„       pronounciation  for  singers,  217,  222 

„       quality  of  tone,  26 

„       vibrations  of  lips,  90 

„       vowel  sounds,  217 
Elsberg  on  nose  breathing,  105 

„  buff'er  and  "  prop  "  cartilages,  71 

„  vocal  nodules,  76 

Epiglottis,  55,  156 


312  INDEX. 


Epiglottis,  cushion  of,  73 

„         in  relation  to  resonance,  78 

„        uses  of,  56 
Essential  element  of  the  voice  is  in  vocal  ligaments,  61 
Eustachian  tubes  (Plate  III.),  39 

„  ,,       closure  of,  in  relation  to  voice,  135 

Exercise,  general,  in  relation  to  voice  use,  261 
Exercises  for  the  lips  and  mouth,  206 

„  „        soft  palate,  214 

tongue,  209 

„         for  attack,  1 96 

„  „  attaining  "reach,"  221 

„  „  correct  breathing,  187 

„  „  developing  and  strengthening  the  registers,  234 

„  „  flexibihty,  223 

„  „  improving  quality,  210 

„  „  the  cure  of  stuttering,  301 

Experiments  before  the  invention  of  the  laryngoscope,  140 
„  on  the  dead  larynx,  how  performed,  144,  199 

„  „  „  „       their  value,  145 

Expiration,  lessons  in  economy  of,  190 


P. 

False  theory  of  attack,  198 

Falsetto,  177,  238 

Ferrein  on  the  voice,  88,  140 

Flexibility  in  relation  to  voice  cultivation,  223 

„         exercise  for  attainment  of,  224 
Framework  of  larynx,  53 

G. 

Galien  on  the  voice,  88 

Garcia,  his  invention  of  the  laryngoscope,  146 

„       on  shock  of  the  glottis,  198 
Gargles,  insufficiency  of,  247 
General  exercise  in  relation  to  voice  use,  261 
Glottic  chink  or  space,  65 
Glottis,  check  of,  161 

„       chink  of,  65 

„       glide  of,  161 

„       its  signification,  65 

„       shock  of,  162,  198 

„      various  modes  of  closing  in  tone  production,  1 6 1 


INDEX.  313 


Grimm  on  power  of  English  language,  37 

Gmetzner  on  registers  of  voice,  170 

Gunther  on  defects  of  speech,  289 

Gymnastics,  vocal,  as  remedy  for  diseased  conditions,  13,  125,  189 

H. 

Hard  palate,  the,  80 

Head  colds,  284 

Heinicke  on  teaching  of  deaf  mutes,  292 

Helmholtz,  his  resonators,  24 

„       on  quality  of  tone,  26 
„         „  qualities  of  voice,  91 
„         „  secondary  influences  of  pitch,  93 
„         „  tone  of  brass  instruments,  90 
„         „  tuning-forks,  34 
„         „  varying  quality  of  tone,  91 
Hot  condiments,  their  influence  on  the  voice,  257 
„    drinks,  „  „  ,,257 

Hullah  on  human  voice  as  a  musical  instrument,  94 

„       „  public  speaking,  9 
Human  voice  as  a  musical  instrument,  88 

„    reed  „  31,  89 

„  „     complex  in  its  nature,  93 

„  „      flute  theory  of,  89 

„         „     reed         „        89 
„  „      string        „         88 

Hunt  on  stammering  and  defects  of  speech,  289 
Hutchinson's  table  of  vital  capacity,  121 
Hygienic  aspect  of  the  motor  portion,  102 
„  „         „      resonant  portion,  129 

,,  „         „      vibrating  portion,  126 

„  „         „      vocal  apparatus,  99 

„        clothing  for  females,  250 
„         stays,  116 

I. 


Inhalations  of  neutral  ammonia  recommended,  282 
„  ,,  steam  to  be  used  cautiously,  282 

Inspiration,  how  accomplished,  47 
„  lessons  in,  187 

Interval  between  eating  and  voice  use,  253 

Isenschmid's  laryngo-phantom,  154 


314  INDEX. 


J. 

Jagielski  on  influence  of  height  on  voice,  96 

K. 

Kempelen's  experiments,  140 
Klencke  on  defects  of  speech,  294 

L. 

Laryngeal  cartilages  or  framework,  53  . 

diseases,  281 
fatigue,  causes  of,  130 

„       how  to  avoid,  127 
image,  explanation  of  its  reversion,  158 

„      various  appearances  of,  170 
photographs,  173 

„  the  process  of  obtaining,  304 

Laryngo-phantom  for  teaching,  154 
Laryngoscope,  description  of,  147 
„  how  to  use  it,  149 

„  invention  of,  145 

„  teachings  of,  156 

„  Foulis's  auto-,  155 

„  Tobold's,  150 

Laryngoscopic  observations  need  not  imply  laryngeal  distortion,  152 
Laryngoscopy,  auto-,  154 

„  beginners  in,  hints  for,  149,  151 

Larynx,  anatomy  of,  51,  et  seq. 
„       cartilages  of,  53 

„       description  of,  as  seen  with  laryngoscope,  156     ' 
„       differences  of,  in  children,  83 
„  „         „  men  and  women,  84 

„  „         „       Luschka  on,  85 

„       framework  of,  53 
„       hygienic  aspect  of,  126 
„       movements  of,  which  can  be  seen  or  felt,  86 
„       muscles  of,  acting  on  vocal  ligaments,  62 
„      position  of,  in  voice  production,  203 
„      vestibule  of,  73 
Laws  of  sound  bearing  on  the  voice,  18 
Lehfeldt's  experiments,  141 


INDEX.  315 


Liskovius's  experiments,  141 
Listen's  laryngoscope,  146 
Loss  of  voice,  281 

„  „       treatment  of,  282 

Ludwig's  names  for  the  laryngeal  cartilages,  52 
Lungs,  anatomy  of,  41 
„      physiology  of,  46 

M. 

Magendie  on  the  voice,  88,  141 
Malgaigne  „  „  88,  141 
Malt  liquors,  indulgence  in,  260 
Mandl  on  collar  bone  respiration,  129 

„         fatigue  on  the  voice,  131 

„        removal  of  enlarged  tonsils,  280 

„  „.        relaxed  uvula,  277 

,,         symptoms  of    „  „       276 

Marshall,  Professor,  on  physiology  of  voice,  6 1 
Mechanical  depression  of  the  tongue,  208 

„  treatment  of  speech  defects,  299 

Merkel  on  causes  for  division  of  voices,  96 

„  the  laryngoscope,  148 

„         the  shape  of  glottic  chink  in  tone  production,  177 
Midriff,  anatomy  of,  40 
Mixed  voice,  or  voce  mista,  237 
Mouth  or  buccal  cavity,  79 
Mucous  membrane  of  vocal  organ,  45 
Miiller  on  physiology  of  pockets  of  larynx,  75 

„         the  voice  as  a  musical  instrument,  142 
Muscles  of  the  chest,  41 
„  „      larynx,  62 

„       of  two  kinds,  i,  which  govern  shape  of  vocal  chink,  68 
2,         „         „      pitch  of  voice,  68 
Muscular  processes,  58 
Musical  ear,  definition  of,  137 

,,       ,,     can  be  trained,  138 

„       tone,  how  to  end,  162 
Myers,  Surgeon-Major,  on  constriction  of  the  neck,  249 

N. 

Nasal  cavity,  how  to  close,  from  throat,  81 
Nasal  resonance,  213 


3i6  INDEX. 


Nasal  tone  or  twang,  27,  211 
„  how  to  cure,  214 

Nervousness  in  singing,  285 

„  relation  to  stuttering,  298 

Niemeyer,  Dr.  Paul,  on  process  of  breathing,  103 
Nitrogen,  its  uses  in  respired  air,  103 
Nodal  lines,  18 
Nodules,  vocal,  76 
Nose-breathing,  its  importance  in  regard  to  voice,  104,  194 

„  Elsberg  on,  105 

„  Walsham  on,  105 

Nose  cavities  in  relation  to  resonance,  79 


O. 

Oxygen,  its  uses  in  respired  air,  103,  104 


P. 

Palate,  the  hard,  80 
„      soft,  80 
„         „     pillars  of,  81 
Patent  voice  remedies,  caution  against,  286 
Pharyngitis  (inflamed  sore  throat),  273 
Pharynx  or  upper  throat,  anatomy  of,  78 

„        granular  inflammation  of  (clergyman's  sore  throat),  274 
Photographs  of  larynx,  178 

„  soft  palate,  215 

Photography  of  throat,  the  process,  304 
Physical  causes  of  division  of  voices,  94 
Physiology,  vocal,  a  plea  for  {see  Vocal  Physiology),  1-17 
Pitch  of  tone,  23 

„     human  voice  influenced  by  windpipe,  92 

„         „  „     Savart  on,  92 

„         „  „     Wheatstone  on,  92 

Pleurae,  anatomy  of,  43 

Pockets  of  larynx,  or  ventricles  of  Morgagni,  70,  157 
Pocket  ligaments  or  false  cords,  69,  157 
Position  in  public  speaking  and  singing,  240 
Posterior  vocal  nodules,  76 
Postdre  in  regard  to  respiration  and  voice,  124 
Pre-laryngoscopic  experiments,  140 


INDEX.  317 


Pyramid  cartilages,  anatomy  of,  57 
Pyramid  muscle,  action  of,  68 

Q. 

Quality  of  voice,  importance  of,  221 

„  „       Deacon  on,  222 

Quinsy  (inflammation  of  tonsils),  278 

B. 

Randegger  on  physical  sensations  in  various  registers,  233 

Reach  of  the  voice,  221 

Reading  aloud,  Cull  on,  1 1 

Reed  instruments,  30,  89 

Register,  definition  of,  163 

Registers  of  the  voice,  in  relation  to  cultivation,  225 

„  „         „       "  lower  thick,"  163 

"•  upper  thick,"  1 64 
"lower  thin,"  167 
"upper  thin,"  168   ^ 
"  small,"  169  ^_ 
falsetto,  174 

„  „         „       Gruetzner  on,  170 

„       union  of,  225 

„  „        „      not  to  be  extended,  235 

Relations  of  throat  and  ear  in  voice  production,  135 
Relaxed  throat,  272 

Residence,  influence  on  daily  life  of  voice-users,  243 
Resonance  in  relation  to  voice  cultivation,  201 

„  of  tone,  its  definition,  31 

„  „      Tyndall  on,  201 

„  sympathetic,  32 

„  „  Helmholtz  on,  34 

Resonator  of  the  vocal  organ,  77 

„  „  „  its  hygienic  aspect,  127 

Resonators  of  Helmholtz,  24 
Respiration  chemically  considered,  102 

„  Curwen  on,  106 

„  influence  of  digestion  on,  180 

„  „  „  stays  on,  185 

„  „  „         „         Bernard  Roth  on,  109 

,  „  „         „         Knoivledge  on,  112 


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3i8  INDEX. 


Respiration,  influence  of  stays  on,  Lancet  on,  114 

„  „  „         „         Mattieu  Williams  on,  118 

„  physiology  of,  45,  106 

„  importance  of  right  method  of,  107 

„  lessons  for  correct,  187-194 

Respirator  veil,  107 

Respirators,  106,  249 

Rest  of  the  voice  useless  without  treatment,  275 

Ribs,  anatomy  of,  38 

Ring  cartilage,  anatomy  of,  53 

Ring-pyramid  muscles  (back),  action  of,  67 
„         (side)  ,,68 

Ringer,  Dr.,  on  tea-drinking  ascause  of  indigestion,  258 

Roberts's,  Mr.  Charles,  table  of  vital  statistics,  123 

Roth,  Mr.  Bernard,  on  tight  lacing,  109 


S. 

Santorini,  cartilages  of,  7 1 
Savart  on  the  voice,  88,  92,  141 
Shield  cartilage,  anatomy  of,  53 

„  „        movements  of,  on  ring-,  55 

Shield-pyramid  muscles,  action  of,  d^ 
Self-taught  art  always  a  fallacy,  4 
Senn's  laryngoscope,  145 
Singing,  distinctions  from  speaking,  35 

„       quality  of,  222 
Smoking  in  relation  to  voice  use,  263 
Snuff-taking         „  „  266 

Soft  palate,  anatomy  of,  80 
„  education  of,  214 

„  its  importance  in  vocalisation,  82 

„  its  mobility,  81 

Soprano  voices,  95,  227 
Sore  throat,  272 

Sound  caused  by  communication  of  vibrations  in  the  air  to  the 
auditory  nerve,  19 
„     laws  of,  bearing  on  the  voice,  1 9 
„     can  be  reflected  like  light,  20 
,,     requires  a  medium,  19 
Spencer  on  value  of  physiology,  i 
Speaking  voice,  definition  of,  35 


INDEX. 


319 


Speaking  voice,  difference  from  singing,  35 
Spirometer  and  its  teachings,  120,  185 
Stammering  and  stuttering,  293 

„  statistics  of,  289 

„  of  vocal  cords,  298 

Stays,  injurious  influence  on  respiration  and  voice,  109 

„      hygienic,  116 
Steam  inhalations,  cautions  concerning,  282 
Steed  on  shock  of  "upper"  glottis,  198 
Stone,  Dr.  W.  H.,  on  power  of  singing  voice  to  combine  with 

significant  words,  206,  222 
Struthers,  Professor,  on  the  pockets  of  the  larynx,  70 
Suppers,  their  influence  on  life  of  voice-user,  255 

T. 

Table  of  vital  statistics,  123 
Tea-drinking,  its  influence  on  the  voice,  257 
Teeth  washing,  &c.,  246 
Tenor  voices,  95,  226 
Tight  lacing,  109,  185 

Thompson,  Sir  Henry,  on  cigarette  smoking,  264 
Thorax  or  chest,  anatomy  of,  38 
„  „      muscles  of,  41 

Throat,  relation  of,  with  ear  in  voice  production,  135 
Throaty  tone,  208 

„         „     how  to  cure,  210 
Tone,  force  of,  22 

how  produced  in  bassoon,  3 1 
clarionet,  31 
flexible  reeds,  30 
flute  or  flue-pipes,  29 
hautboy,  31 
horn,  31 
human  voice,  3 1 
reed  instruments,  29 
stiff"  reeds,  29 
stringed  instruments,  29 
„       trumpet,  31 
how  to  end  a  musical,  162 
inherent  quality  of,  28 
loudness  of,  2  2 
nasal,  27,  211 


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320 


INDEX. 


» 

sen 

Tone,  pitch  of,  23 
„      quality  of,  26 

„         „         „     depends  on  many  causes,  28 
„         „         „    may  be  cutting,  27 
full,  27 
harsh,  27 
hollow,  27 
musical,  27 
nasal,  27 
rich,  27 
rough,  27 
sensations  of,  Helmholtz  and  Ellis  on,  26 
Tones,  compound,  22 

„  „  their  analysis,  24 

„      prime  and  partial,  24 
„      simple,  21 
„      resonance  of,  31 
Tongue,  exercises  for  bringing  under  control,  209 

„       not  necessary  to  protrude  in  laryngoscopy,  152 
„       not  to  be  mechanically  depressed,  208 
Tongue-bone,  54 
Tonsils,  enlargement  of,  278 

„  „  „      symptoms  of,  298 

„  „  „      treatment  of,  280 

Trachea  or  windpipe,  anatomy  of,  44 
Tremolo,  cause  of,  108 
„         cure  of,  188 
Tuning-forks,  34 

Tiirck  and  the  laryngoscope,  148 
Turkish  bathing,  245 
Tyndall  on  echoes,  21 
„  reeds,  30 

U. 
Uvula,  anatomy  of,  81 

,,      elongation  or  relaxation  of,  275 

„  „  „  „     symptoms  of,  276 

„  „  „  „     treatment  of,  277 


Ventricles  of  Morgagni  or  pockets  of  larynx,  70,  77 
Ventricular  bands  or  pocket  ligaments,  69 

„  „     NEVER  meet  in  tone  production,  75 


INDEX.  321 


Vestibule  of  the  larynx,  73 

„  „  „       in  relation  to  resonance,  78 

Vibrations  can  be  felt,  18 
seen,  18 

„         Chladni's  experiments,  18 

„         compound,  21 

„  „  their  analysis^  21 

„         may  be  simple  or  compound,  2 1 

„        must  be  communicated  to  the  ear  to  produce  sound,  19 

„         rate  of,  influences  pitch,  23 

„         require  a  medium  to  produce  sound,  19 

„         simple,  21 
Vocal  ligaments,  vocal  bands,  cords,  or  lips,  anatomy  of,  58 
„  ,,  constitute  essential  element  of  voice,  61 

,,  „         measurements  of,  61 

„  „  variations  of  length,  &c.,  in  different  voices,  95 

„     nodules,  anterior  and  posterior  vocal,  76 
„     organ,  anatomy  of,  38 
„         „      resonator  of,  77 
„     processes,  59 
„     tone,  60 

„     physiology,  analogy  with  studies  in  art,  4 
„  „  „     medicine,  5 

a  plea  for,  i 
„  „      .  as  considered  by  the  Greeks,  9 

„  „         basis  of  all  right  voice  production,  8 

„  „         Haertinger  on,  6 

„  „         how  to  be  learned,  13 

„  „         Hullah  on,  9 

„  „         ignorance  of,  cause  of  failure,  12,  17 

„  „         in  relation  to  laryngoscopy,  15 

„  „         Kofler  on,  4 

„  „         Marx  on,  5 

„  »        must  be  studied  as  a  whole,  and  not  in  details,  16 

„  „         should  be  taught  in  universities,  1 1 

„  „         why  required,  i 

Voice  cultivation,  179 
„     definition  of,  35 
„     human,  as  an  instrument,  31,  38 
„     singing,  definition  of,  35 
„     speaking,       „         „    35 
„     difference  of  singing  and  speaking,  35 

Y 


322  INDEX. 


Voice,  different  requirements  of  singing  and  speaking,  36 

„       its  anatomy,  38 

„       mixed,  236 

,,       production,  relation  of  throat  and  ear  in,  135 
*  Voice,  Tlie,'  edited  by  Werner,  288 
Voice-user,  ailments  of  a,  268 
„  daily  life  of  a,  243 

Voice-box — ^<?^  Larynx,  51. 
Vowel  sounds,  217 

„  „        Ellis  on,  217 

„  „         how  to  obtain  resonance  of,  220 

„  „         varying  pitch  of,  2 1 8 


W. 

Walshe  on  Dramatic  singing,  37,  182,  230 

Warden's  laryngoscope,  146 

Water,  cold,  to  throat,  247 

Wax,  impacted,  in  the  ears  a  cause  of  voice  trouble,  136 

Werner,  Edgar,  on  defects  of  speech,  288 

Windpipe  or  trachea,  anatomy  of,  44 

Wine,  indulgence  in,  260 

Wyllie's  experiments  on  physiology  of  ventricles  of  Morgagni,  200 

„  „  had  nothing  to  do  with  voice  production,  200^  307 

Wrisberg,  cartilages  of,  71 

Z. 

Zug  on  defects  of  speech,  289 


BESI.TY, 


LONDON:    PRINTED  BY   WILLIAM   CLOWES  AND  SONS,  LIMITED, 
STAMFORD  STREET   AND   CHARING  CROSS. 


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